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1.13: Non-renewable energy sources

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INTRODUCTION

Sufficient, reliable sources of energy are a necessity for industrialized nations. Energy is used for heating, cooking, transportation and manufacturing. Energy can be generally classified as non-renewable and renewable. Over 85% of the energy used in the world is from non-renewable supplies. Most developed nations are dependent on non-renewable energy sources such as fossil fuels (coal and oil) and nuclear power. These sources are called non-renewable because they cannot be renewed or regenerated quickly enough to keep pace with their use. Some sources of energy are renewable or potentially renewable. Examples of renewable energy sources are: solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, biomass, and wind. Renewable energy sources are more commonly by used in developing nations.

Industrialized societies depend on non-renewable energy sources. Fossil fuels are the most commonly used types of non-renewable energy. They were formed when incompletely decomposed plant and animal matter was buried in the earth's crust and converted into carbon-rich material that is useable as fuel. This process occurred over millions of years. The three main types of fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Two other less-used sources of fossil fuels are oil shales and tar sands.

Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the world with an estimated reserve of one trillion metric tons. Most of the world's coal reserves exist in Eastern Europe and Asia, but the United States also has considerable reserves. Coal formed slowly over millions of years from the buried remains of ancient swamp plants. During the formation of coal, carbonaceous matter was first compressed into a spongy material called "peat," which is about 90% water. As the peat became more deeply buried, the increased pressure and temperature turned it into coal.

Different types of coal resulted from differences in the pressure and temperature that prevailed during formation. The softest coal (about 50% carbon), which also has the lowest energy output, is called lignite . Lignite has the highest water content (about 50%) and relatively low amounts of smog-causing sulfur. With increasing temperature and pressure, lignite is transformed into bituminous coal (about 85% carbon and 3% water). Anthracite (almost 100% carbon) is the hardest coal and also produces the greatest energy when burned. Less than 1% of the coal found in the United States is anthracite. Most of the coal found in the United States is bituminous . Unfortunately, bituminous coal has the highest sulfur content of all the coal types. When the coal is burned, the pollutant sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Coal mining creates several environmental problems. Coal is most cheaply mined from near-surface deposits using strip mining techniques. Strip-mining causes considerable environmental damage in the forms of erosion and habitat destruction. Sub-surface mining of coal is less damaging to the surface environment, but is much more hazardous for the miners due to tunnel collapses and gas explosions. Currently, the world is consuming coal at a rate of about 5 billion metric tons per year. The main use of coal is for power generation, because it is a relatively inexpensive way to produce power.

Coal is used to produce over 50% of the electricity in the United States. In addition to electricity production, coal is sometimes used for heating and cooking in less developed countries and in rural areas of developed countries. If consumption continues at the same rate, the current reserves will last for more than 200 years. The burning of coal results in significant atmospheric pollution. The sulfur contained in coal forms sulfur dioxide when burned. Harmful nitrogen oxides, heavy metals, and carbon dioxide are also released into the air during coal burning. The harmful emissions can be reduced by installing scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators in the smokestacks of power plants. The toxic ash remaining after coal burning is also an environmental concern and is usually disposed into landfills.

Crude oil or liquid petroleum, is a fossil fuel that is refined into many different energy products (e.g., gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuel, heating oil). Oil forms underground in rock such as shale , which is rich in organic materials. After the oil forms, it migrates upward into porous reservoir rock such as sandstone or limestone, where it can become trapped by an overlying impermeable cap rock. Wells are drilled into these oil reservoirs to remove the gas and oil. Over 70 percent of oil fields are found near tectonic plate boundaries, because the conditions there are conducive to oil formation.

Oil recovery can involve more than one stage. The primary stage involves pumping oil from reservoirs under the normal reservoir pressure. About 25 percent of the oil in a reservoir can be removed during this stage. The secondary recovery stage involves injecting hot water into the reservoir around the well. This water forces the remaining oil toward the area of the well from which it can be recovered. Sometimes a tertiary method of recovery is used in order to remove as much oil as possible. This involves pumping steam, carbon dioxide gas or nitrogen gas into the reservoir to force the remaining oil toward the well. Tertiary recovery is very expensive and can cost up to half of the value of oil removed. Carbon dioxide used in this method remains sequestered in the deep reservoir, thus mitigating its potential greenhouse effect on the atmosphere. The refining process required to convert crude oil into useable hydrocarbon compounds involves boiling the crude and separating the gases in a process known as fractional distillation. Besides its use as a source of energy, oil also provides base material for plastics, provides asphalt for roads and is a source of industrial chemicals.

Over 50 percent of the world's oil is found in the Middle East; sizeable additional reserves occur in North America. Most known oil reserves are already being exploited, and oil is being used at a rate that exceeds the rate of discovery of new sources. If the consumption rate continues to increase and no significant new sources are found, oil supplies may be exhausted in another 30 years or so.

Despite its limited supply, oil is a relatively inexpensive fuel source. It is a preferred fuel source over coal. An equivalent amount of oil produces more kilowatts of energy than coal. It also burns cleaner, producing about 50 percent less sulfur dioxide.

Oil, however, does cause environmental problems. The burning of oil releases atmospheric pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide. These gases are smog-precursors that pollute the air and greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Another environmental issue associated with the use of oil is the impact of oil drilling. Substantial oil reserves lie under the ocean. Oil spill accidents involving drilling platforms kill marine organisms and birds. Some reserves such as those in northern Alaska occur in wilderness areas. The building of roads, structures and pipelines to support oil recovery operations can severely impact the wildlife in those natural areas.

NATURAL GAS

Natural gas production is often a by-product of oil recovery, as the two commonly share underground reservoirs. Natural gas is a mixture of gases, the most common being methane (CH4). It also contains some ethane (C2H5), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). Natural gas is usually not contaminated with sulfur and is therefore the cleanest burning fossil fuel. After recovery, propane and butane are removed from the natural gas and made into liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ). LPG is shipped in special pressurized tanks as a fuel source for areas not directly served by natural gas pipelines (e.g., rural communities). The remaining natural gas is further refined to remove impurities and water vapor, and then transported in pressurized pipelines. The United States has over 300,000 miles of natural gas pipelines. Natural gas is highly flammable and is odorless. The characteristic smell associated with natural gas is actually that of minute quantities of a smelly sulfur compound ( ethyl mercaptan ) which is added during refining to warn consumers of gas leaks.

The use of natural gas is growing rapidly. Besides being a clean burning fuel source, natural gas is easy and inexpensive to transport once pipelines are in place. In developed countries, natural gas is used primarily for heating, cooking, and powering vehicles. It is also used in a process for making ammonia fertilizer. The current estimate of natural gas reserves is about 100 million metric tons. At current usage levels, this supply will last an estimated 100 years. Most of the world's natural gas reserves are found in Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

OIL SHALE AND TAR SANDS

Oil shale and tar sands are the least utilized fossil fuel sources. Oil shale is sedimentary rock with very fine pores that contain kerogen , a carbon-based, waxy substance. If shale is heated to 490º C, the kerogen vaporizes and can then be condensed as shale oil, a thick viscous liquid. This shale oil is generally further refined into usable oil products. Production of shale oil requires large amounts of energy for mining and processing the shale. Indeed about a half barrel of oil is required to extract every barrel of shale oil. Oil shale is plentiful, with estimated reserves totaling 3 trillion barrels of recoverable shale oil. These reserves alone could satisfy the world's oil needs for about 100 years. Environmental problems associated with oil shale recovery include: large amounts of water needed for processing, disposal of toxic waste water, and disruption of large areas of surface lands.

Tar sand is a type of sedimentary rock that is impregnated with a very thick crude oil. This thick crude does not flow easily and thus normal oil recovery methods cannot be used to mine it. If tar sands are near the surface, they can be mined directly. In order to extract the oil from deep-seated tar sands, however, steam must be injected into the reservoir to make the oil flow better and push it toward the recovery well. The energy cost for producing a barrel of tar sand is similar to that for oil shale. The largest tar-sand deposit in the world is in Canada and contains enough material (about 500 billion barrels) to supply the world with oil for about 15 years. However, because of environmental concerns and high production costs these tar sand fields are not being fully utilized.

NUCLEAR POWER

In most electric power plants, water is heated and converted into steam, which drives a turbine-generator to produce electricity. Fossil-fueled power plants produce heat by burning coal, oil, or natural gas. In a nuclear power plant , the fission of uranium atoms in the reactor provides the heat to produce steam for generating electricity.

Several commercial reactor designs are currently in use in the United States. The most widely used design consists of a heavy steel pressure vessel surrounding a reactor core. The reactor core contains the uranium fuel, which is formed into cylindrical ceramic pellets and sealed in long metal tubes called fuel rods . Thousands of fuel rods form the reactor core. Heat is produced in a nuclear reactor when neutrons strike uranium atoms, causing them to split in a continuous chain reaction. Control rods , which are made of a material such as boron that absorbs neutrons, are placed among the fuel assemblies.

When the neutron-absorbing control rods are pulled out of the core, more neutrons become available for fission and the chain reaction speeds up, producing more heat. When they are inserted into the core, fewer neutrons are available for fission, and the chain reaction slows or stops, reducing the heat generated. Heat is removed from the reactor core area by water flowing through it in a closed pressurized loop. The heat is transferred to a second water loop through a heat exchanger. The water also serves to slow down, or "moderate" the neutrons which is necessary for sustaining the fission reactions. The second loop is kept at a lower pressure, allowing the water to boil and create steam, which is used to power the turbine-generator and produce electricity.

Originally, nuclear energy was expected to be a clean and cheap source of energy. Nuclear fission does not produce atmospheric pollution or greenhouse gases and it proponents expected that nuclear energy would be cheaper and last longer than fossil fuels. Unfortunately, because of construction cost overruns, poor management, and numerous regulations, nuclear power ended up being much more expensive than predicted. The nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania and the Chernobyl Nuclear Plant in the Ukraine raised concerns about the safety of nuclear power. Furthermore, the problem of safely disposing spent nuclear fuel remains unresolved. The United States has not built a new nuclear facility in over twenty years, but with continued energy crises across the country that situation may change.

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Renewable and Non-renewable Energy Resources Explained

by Kevin Stark

There are two major categories of energy: renewable and non-renewable.

Non-renewable energy resources are available in limited supplies, usually because they take a long time to replenish. The advantage of these non-renewable resources is that power plants that use them are able to produce more power on demand. The non-renewable energy resources are:

• Natural gas

Renewable resources, on the other hand, replenish themselves. The five major renewable energy resources are:

• Water, also called hydro
• Biomass, or organic material from plants and animals
• Geothermal, which is naturally occurring heat from the earth

While renewable energy resources have the advantage of unlimited supply over the long haul, they are limited in their availability at any given moment.

For example, the sun rises each day, but its ability to generate power is limited when its cloudy . Another disadvantage is that power plant operators can’t crank up renewable energy production when people are consuming more power, such as on a hot day when many people are running air conditioners at the same time.

States like California are trying to solve this problem by using energy storage, like large batteries, to collect electricity from renewable sources when demand is low in order to use it later when demand goes up.

Non-renewable Energy and Climate Change

When coal, natural gas and oil are burned to produce energy, they emit heat-trapping gases such as carbon dioxide. This process of trapping heat is what drives climate change, and the failure to address this problem is what's catalyzing the current climate crisis.

Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing materials like coal or gas that are found in the Earth’s crust and formed in the geological past from the remains of living organisms. These energy sources account for the majority of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions .

If emissions continue unrestrained, the atmosphere could warm by as much as 2.7 degrees Fahrenheit above preindustrial levels by the year 2040, according to the latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a group of international scientists empowered by the United Nations to advise world leaders.

Scientists say this increase in the temperature  would threaten life on the planet in a myriad of ways, including severe water shortages; more air pollution; rising sea levels, habitat loss; heat waves; melting ice sheets in West Antarctica and Greenland; and destruction of the world’s coral reefs.

Over the last 150 years, humans are responsible for the vast majority of the increase of these gases in the atmosphere, and the burning of fossil fuels through activities like driving a car is the largest source of these emissions.

There is a vocal group of environmentalists and researchers —Stanford’s Mark Jacobson, who developed a state-by-state 100% renewable plan for one — who argue that the power grid should be supported only by renewable resources.

Policy makers who invest in renewable energy often do so with the goal of generating power without emitting these planet-warming gases.

The Nuclear Debate

Experts debate whether nuclear energy should be considered a renewable or non-renewable energy resource.

Nuclear energy is considered clean energy, as it doesn’t create any air pollution or emit carbon dioxide, but generates energy through nuclear fission, the process of atoms splitting apart.

For this reason, supporters of nuclear energy argue it should be considered renewable.

Those who are in favor of more nuclear energy hold that that even with investment in wind, solar and other renewable resources, nuclear power is necessary, because without it we can’t reduce emissions quickly enough to stave off the worst impacts of climate change. Without contributions from nuclear energy “the cost of achieving deep decarbonization targets increases significantly,” wrote MIT researchers in a 2018  paper  examining the issue.

Detractors of this approach say that both the mining and refining of uranium and the building of nuclear power plants is energy-intensive. Other downsides to nuclear energy are the finite amount of uranium deposits on the planet and the production of harmful waste from nuclear reactors.

For these reasons, the U.S. Energy Information Administration considers it a non-renewable energy resource.

Links to Learn More

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Change A body of the United Nations, the IPCC regularly assesses the science of climate change and issues annual reports on the impacts and risks of warming, as well as guidance for adaptation and mitigation.

U.S. Energy Administration This U.S. Department of Energy website includes detailed information, analysis and graphics about energy production and use in the U.S.

The United States of Energy A series of infographics provides insight on our country’s energy production and consumption of both renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

PBS LearningMedia Find hundreds of digital media resources about renewable energy for use in the classroom from public media stations across the country.

Andrea Aust contributed to this post.

To learn more about how we use your information, please read our privacy policy.

Sources of Energy: A Comparison

Learn how turning toward cleaner energy sources means factoring in economic and energy needs alongside environmental ones.

A solar panel park and wind turbines are seen along the highway in Geldermalsen, Netherlands on June 28, 2023.

Source: Piroschka van de Wouw / Reuters

If you want to be eco-friendly, you should be driving an electric car. Right?

Unfortunately, it is not as simple as that. While electric cars do not pollute the air around them like a combustion engine does, they do need to be charged, leading to questions such as what energy source the electricity is coming from and whether that energy source is clean.

The overall evaluation of an energy source is based not only on how clean it is; it also has to be reliable, accessible, and affordable. Not all of these factors can be categorized neatly. For example, petroleum tends to be relatively affordable in the United States, but that is in part because the government subsidizes fossil fuel industries. Similarly, while wind energy tends to be relatively expensive, its cost has been steadily declining for years as its use increases.

To evaluate the options available, understanding fundamental facts about what types of energy are available and what trade-offs each presents is helpful.

There are three main categories of energy sources: fossil fuel, alternative, and renewable. Renewable is sometimes, but not always, included under alternative.

Fossil Fuels : Petroleum, Coal, and Natural Gas

Fossil fuels formed over millions of years ago as dead plants and animals were subjected to extreme heat and pressure in the earth’s crust. This natural process converted bones and other organic matter into carbon-rich substances that, when burned, generate energy. There are three main fossil fuels.

• Petroleum is an umbrella term that includes products such as crude oil, which is refined into more familiar fuels such as gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and diesel. Petroleum and oil are often used interchangeably. It is extracted through drilling or hydraulic fracturing (also known as fracking ).
• Coal is a rock found close to the earth’s surface and is one of the world’s most abundant fossil fuels. It is extracted through surface mining (using machines to clear away the uppermost layers of rock and soil) and underground mining (using machines and miners to remove coal deep underground).
• Natural gas , a mixture of gases trapped underneath the earth’s surface, is extracted in similar ways as oil. Advances in drilling and fracking have unlocked vast reserves of natural gas.

Fossil fuels are often called dirty energy sources because using them comes at a high—and often irreversible—cost to the environment. Carbon emissions , or the amount of carbon dioxide these fuels release into the atmosphere, add up over generations and cannot be taken back. Moreover, there is only a finite amount of these resources on earth. 

Renewable and Alternative Energy : Wind Power, Solar Power, Hydropower, Nuclear Energy, and Biofuels

Forms of energy not derived from fossil fuels include both renewable and alternative energy , terms that are sometimes used interchangeably but do not mean the same thing. Alternative energy broadly refers to any energy that is not extracted from a fossil fuel, but not necessarily only from a renewable source. For example, nuclear power generation most commonly uses uranium, an abundant but not technically renewable fuel. Renewable energy , on the other hand, includes sources such as sun and wind that occur naturally and continuously. 

There are five main renewable and alternative fuels.

• Wind power is created when wind spins a turbine, or a windmill, which can be located on land or offshore. 
• Solar power harnesses the sun’s energy in two ways: by converting the sun’s light directly into electricity when the sun is out (think solar panels), or solar thermal energy, which uses the sun’s heat to create electricity, a method that works even when the sun is down.
• Hydropower is created when rapidly flowing water turns turbines inside a dam, generating electricity.
• Nuclear energy is produced at power plants by the process of nuclear fission . The energy created during nuclear reactions is harnessed to produce electricity.
• Biofuels , also referred to as biomass, are produced using organic materials (wood, agricultural crops and waste, food waste, and animal manure) that contain stored energy from the sun. Humans have used biomass since they discovered how to burn wood to make fire. Liquid biofuels, such as ethanol, also release chemical energy in the form of heat. 

Renewable and alternative energy sources are often categorized as clean energy because they produce significantly less carbon emissions compared to fossil fuels. But they are not without an environmental footprint.

Hydropower generation, for example, releases lower carbon emissions than fossil fuel plants do. However, damming water to build reservoirs for hydropower floods valleys, disrupting local ecosystems and livelihoods. In another case, biofuels are renewable but are cultivated on huge swaths of land and sometimes generate more carbon emissions than fossil fuels do.

Other considerations such as safety also matter. The likelihood of a meltdown at a nuclear facility is exceedingly small, but if one were to occur, the results would be catastrophic. In fact, concerns about the dangers associated with operating nuclear power plants have limited the expansion of nuclear energy.  

Despite the diversity of energy sources available, most countries rely on the three major fossil fuels.

In 2018, more than 81 percent of the energy countries produced came from fossil fuels. Hydroelectricity and other renewable energy (14 percent) and nuclear energy (about 5 percent) accounted for the remainder. But not all countries consume energy at the same levels. For example, the United States, China, and European Union countries combined were responsible for half of the world’s total coal, natural gas, and oil consumption in 2018. Nor do all countries use the same mix of fuels. Norway primarily uses hydroelectric power, for example, but in Saudi Arabia oil reigns supreme. When choosing which types of energy to use, countries balance their economic needs with environmental concerns.

Electric Power Consumption by Country

Click on each country for information about its use of energy sources.

Source: World Bank.

Climate change has added new considerations and urgency to the decisions countries make about their energy sources.

Developing countries have different needs than developed countries—and they face a different set of energy challenges as consequences of climate change become more severe. Many developing countries are going through industrialization , the development of factories and mass production, which requires large amounts of energy. Some of these countries see fossil fuels as the best way to achieve those energy goals, though many are turning to alternative energy sources as well—seeing them as the future of energy consumption.

In 2015, 196 countries pledged to increase their use of clean energy as part of the Paris Agreement , an international treaty that allowed signatories to set their own goals for lower carbon emissions . As countries around the world push to adopt more clean energy sources, they will increasingly contend with the environmental and economic trade-offs that renewable sources present and the reality that opting for clean over dirty energy is not such a simple choice after all.

• ENVIRONMENT

Fossil fuels, explained

Much of the world's energy comes from material formed hundreds of millions of years ago, and there are environmental consequences for it.

Decomposing plants and other organisms, buried beneath layers of sediment and rock, have taken millennia to become the carbon-rich deposits we now call fossil fuels. These non-renewable fuels , which include coal, oil, and natural gas, supply about 80 percent of the world’s energy. They provide electricity, heat, and transportation, while also feeding the processes that make a huge range of products, from steel to plastics.

When fossil fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases , which in turn trap heat in our atmosphere, making them the primary contributors to global warming and climate change .

Major types of fossil fuels

There are several main groups of fossil fuels, including:

Coal: Black or brown chunks of sedimentary rock that range from crumbly to relatively hard, coal began to form during the Carboniferous period about 300 to 360 million years ago, when algae and debris from vegetation in swamp forests settled deeper and deeper under layers of mud. Mined via surface or underground methods, coal supplies a third of all energy worldwide, with the top coal consumers and producers in 2018 being China, India, and the United States. Coal is classified into four categories—anthracite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and lignite–depending on its carbon content.

Carbon dioxide emissions from burning coal account for 44 percent of the world total , and it's the biggest single source of the global temperature increase above pre-industrial levels. The health and environmental consequences of coal use, along with competition from cheap natural gas, have contributed to its decline in the U.S. and elsewhere. But in other places, such as India, demand is expected to rise through 2023.

Oil: Crude oil, a liquid composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen , is often black, but exists in a variety of colors and viscosities depending on its chemical composition. Much of it formed during the Mesozoic period, between 252 and 66 million years ago, as plankton, algae, and other matter sank to the bottom of ancient seas and was eventually buried.

Extracted from onshore and offshore wells, crude oil is refined into a variety of petroleum products , including gasoline, diesel, and heating oil. The top oil-producing countries are the U.S., Saudi Arabia, and Russia, which together account for nearly 40 percent of the world's supply.

Petroleum use accounts for nearly half the carbon emissions in the U.S. and about a third of the global total. In addition to the air pollution released when oil is burned, drilling and transport have led to several major accidents, such as the Exxon Valdez spill in 1989, the Deepwater Horizon disaster in 2010, the devastating Lac Megantic oil train derailment in 2013, and thousands of pipeline incidents . Nonetheless, oil demand continues to rise , driven not only by our thirst for mobility, but for the many products— including plastics —made using petrochemicals, which are generally derived from oil and gas.

Natural gas: An odorless gas composed primarily of methane, natural gas often lies in deposits that, like those for coal and oil, formed millions of years ago from decaying plant matter and organisms. Both natural gas and oil production have surged in the U.S. over the past two decades because of advances in the drilling technique most people know as fracking .

By combining fracking—or hydraulic fracturing—with horizontal drilling and other innovations, the fossil-fuel industry has managed to extract resources that were previously too costly to reach. As a result, natural gas has surpassed coal to become the top fuel for U.S. electricity production, and the U.S. leads the world in natural gas production, followed by Russia and Iran.

Natural gas is cleaner than coal and oil in terms of emissions, but nonetheless accounts for a fifth of the world's total, not counting the so-called fugitive emissions that escape from the industry, which can be significant . Not all of the world’s natural gas sources are being actively mined. Undersea methane hydrates, for example, where gas is trapped in frozen water, are being eyed as a potential gas resource .

Reducing emissions from fossil fuels

Governments around the world are now engaged in efforts to ramp down greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels to prevent the worst effects of climate change. At the international level, countries have committed to emissions reduction targets as part of the 2015 Paris Agreement , while other entities—including cities, states, and businesses—have made their own commitments. These efforts generally focus on replacing fossil fuels with renewable energy sources, increasing energy efficiency, and electrifying sectors such as transportation and buildings.

However, many sources of carbon emissions, such as existing power plants that run on natural gas and coal, are already locked in. Considering the world's continuing dependence on fossil fuels, many argue that in addition to efforts aimed at replacing them, we also need to suck carbon from the air with technologies such as carbon capture, in which emissions are diverted to underground storage or recycled before they reach the atmosphere. A handful of commercial-scale projects around the world already capture carbon dioxide from the smokestacks of fossil fuel-fired plants, and while its high costs have prevented wider adoption , advocates hope advances in the technology will eventually make it more affordable.

Related Topics

• FOSSIL FUELS
• AIR POLLUTION
• CLIMATE CHANGE
• GREENHOUSE EFFECT
• CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE
• CARBON FOOTPRINT
• RENEWABLE ENERGY
• SUSTAINABILITY

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The environmental impact of non-renewable energies: climate change and more

If we want to comply with the Paris Agreement and prevent the global temperature from increasing by more than 2°C this century, it is essential that 60 % of the oil still available, as well as 90 % of the coal, remain unused underground. This comes from a recent study published in Nature , which encourages us to stop using non-renewable energies to save ourselves from a climate disaster. The dangers of these energy sources extend far beyond global warming. We will tell you more about the environmental impacts of non-renewable energies.

What will I read in this article?

The problem with non-renewable energies

Environmental impact of non-renewable energies.

• The fuel of climate change
• Oil slicks and spills
• Radioactive waste
• Effects on human health

Energy transition: the route towards renewables

“It is essential that 60 % of the oil still available, as well as 90 % of the coal, remain underground”

Coal, oil and natural gas are known as non-renewable sources of energy because they exist in limited quantities in nature. In other words, they are generated from finite resources or they take an extremely long time to regenerate.

Nuclear energy is also a non-renewable energy source because the uranium it uses as fuel does not regenerate on its own. Nevertheless, it does help to fight against climate change, because it does not emit CO2 or greenhouse gases.

These resources are found in nature, but they disappear as they are used. According to a recent study published in the scientific journal Nature , oil reserves will be depleted by 2043 . The same applies to coal and natural gas - the date when we will no longer have these fossil fuels is fast approaching. But the reason why we must urgently seek new sources of energy is not because these resources are running out, but because of the serious environmental impact of non-renewable energies on our planet.

The fuel of climate change 🌎🌡

Fossil fuels account for 80 % of current global demand for primary energy , and the energy system is the source of approximately two-thirds of worldwide CO₂ emissions .

Both CO₂ and other greenhouse gases are able to accumulate and emit heat. And, as the experts have shown, an increase in the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere leads to a significant increase in the Earth's temperature . Today, the Earth's temperature has already increased by over 1°C since the pre-industrial era. You can read more about it here.

“Fossil fuels account for 80 % of current global demand for primary energy”

If current trends continue – i.e. if the current share of fossil fuels is maintained and the forecast that energy demand will double by 2050 proves to be correct – we will be a long way from keeping the global temperature rise to 2°C, never mind 1.5°C. Such warming would have disastrous consequences for the planet and its climate.

Oil slicks and spills ⚠🛢

Furthermore, on the list of environmental disasters resulting from human activities, oil slicks are among the most serious and also the most common . One of the most affected areas on the planet is the Amazon.

Having been affected since 2014 by frequent oil spills, nearly 400 communities in the Peruvian Amazon have lead, cadmium, mercury and other heavy metals in their system.

The province of Sucumbíos , part of the Ecuadorian Amazon, is one of the areas most affected by oil pollution. Food, water and air are affected by spills. The rainforest is full of mecheros, huge chimneys that burn the exhaust gases from oil extraction and also pollute rainwater, the primary source of water for the area's inhabitants.

Radioactive waste ☢❗

Where nuclear energy is concerned, it is necessary to handle radioactive waste correctly. This is waste that cannot be recycled and must be stored very safely because it can generate radioactivity for centuries and even millennia. Nuclear waste has to be managed by ensuring maximum safety, as radioactivity is harmful to the health of people and the planet. Radioactivity released in large quantities is lethal and can also cause deformities and disease in people living in the area over several generations.

You only have to listen to the stories of those who, decades later, are still suffering the effects of the Chernobyl nuclear accident.

Acid rain 🌧💦

Acid rain is one of the consequences of air pollution. It happens when pollutant emissions from factories, cars or central heating boilers come into contact with atmospheric humidity. These emissions are caused by the burning of fossil fuels, and lead to the acidification of soils, lakes and seas with the resulting damage to land and marine flora and fauna.

Effects on human health 😷🤒

The fact is that all the consequences of using non-renewable energies mentioned above have an impact on people's health in one way or another. But, looking at more specific data, air pollution from burning fossil fuels causes 4.5 million deaths worldwide each yea r, according to a study by Greenpeace and the Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA). Not to mention that, according to WHO estimates, about 4.2 million premature deaths occur annually from exposure to metal particles linked to burning fossil fuels.

According to the Nature study mentioned at the beginning of this article, if we do not stop using non-renewable energies immediately, the temperature rise that awaits us will bring irreversible changes to our planet - more heat waves, longer warm seasons, shorter cold seasons, a surge in the most extreme weather events etc.

The energy transition is the only way forward if we want to achieve the most ambitious objective of the Paris Agreement: to limit the rise in the temperature of the planet to 1.5°C above pre-industrial values, which according to the IPCC would mean that carbon neutrality can be achieved by 2050. Effort is required on the part of all countries to create a global energy system that is stable, sustainable and affordable. A world that functions on the basis of renewable energies is critical to guarantee our future and that of the planet.

https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/role-fossil-fuels-sustainable-energy-system

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03821-8

https://www.activesustainability.com/renewable-energy/the-most-used-renewable-energies/

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Nonrenewable Resource: Definition, Features, and Examples

Investopedia / Zoe Hansen

What Are Nonrenewable Resources?

Nonrenewable resources are natural substances that are not replenished with the speed at which it is consumed. As such, a nonrenewable resource is a finite resource. Examples of nonrenewable resources include fossil fuels, oil, natural gas , and coal. The opposite of a nonrenewable resource is a renewable resource , one that is replenished naturally or can be sustained.

Key Takeaways

• A nonrenewable resource is a substance that is used up more quickly than it can replace itself.
• The supply of a nonrenewable resource is finite, which means it cannot easily be replenished
• Nonrenewable resources are extracted directly from the Earth.
• Most fossil fuels, minerals, and metal ores are nonrenewable resources.
• The opposite of nonrenewable resources is renewable ones, whose supplies are abundant and are considered sustainable.

Understanding Nonrenewable Resources

Nonrenewable resources come directly from the earth. This can be directly from the ground or a mine. The reserves of these substances took billions of years to form, and it will take billions of years to replace the supplies used. As such, the supplies of nonrenewable resources are finite and cannot be replaced. Humans extract these resources in gas, liquid, or solid form and then convert them to suit their needs.

Crude oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium are nonrenewable resources. These are all processed into products that can be used commercially. For instance, the fossil fuel industry extracts crude oil from the ground and converts it to gasoline. Fossil fuel liquids also are refined into petrochemical products that are used as ingredients in the manufacture of literally hundreds of products from plastics and polyurethane to solvents.

Some types of groundwater are considered nonrenewable resources if the aquifer is unable to be replenished at the same rate at which it's drained.

Most societies are heavily dependent on nonrenewable resources, especially for energy. It's estimated that about 80% of all of the world's energy is consumed using fossil fuels. Not only does this put a huge strain on the available supply but it also has a major impact on the environment. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, which leads to climate change .

In economic terms, nonrenewables are resources of financial or economic value that cannot be readily replaced at the speed with which they are being consumed.

Nonrenewable Resources vs. Renewable Resources

Nonrenewable resources are contrasted with renewable ones. The supplies of renewable resources are abundant and endless, which makes them easy to find and easy to replace. Unlike nonrenewable ones, renewable resources are generally sustainable. While the former can be depleted, the latter can't.

The sun, wind, and water are the most common examples of renewable resources. Others include lumber (which can be replenished through planting), the earth's heat (geothermal), and biomass.

The call to use renewable resources, especially as energy sources, is becoming more common. That's because our dependence on and consumption of nonrenewable resources is causing a rapid decline in supplies and leading to climate change. Clean energy sources include solar energy and turbines that are powered by wind. These easily replenish themselves and don't have a detrimental impact on the environment.

What about metals and minerals that come from the earth, such as gold, silver, and iron? These may be nonrenewable or renewable resources, depending on who you ask. They can fall into the former category because they are extracted from the Earth. But some people consider them renewable and sustainable because they are abundant and can be used and recycled.

Fossil Fuels and Nonrenewable Resources

Fossil fuels are all nonrenewable. But not all nonrenewables are fossil fuels. Crude oil, natural gas, and coal are all considered fossil fuels, but uranium is not. Rather, it is a heavy metal that is extracted as a solid and then converted by nuclear power plants into a fuel source.

All of these nonrenewable resources have proved historically to be valuable energy sources that are inexpensive to extract. Storage, conversion, and shipping are easy and cheap.

Fuels created from nonrenewable resources are still the primary source of all the power generated in the world due to their affordability and high energy content.

Following the basic rule of supply and demand , the cost to obtain nonrenewable resources will continue to rise as they become scarcer. Supply for many of these fuels is in danger of running out completely. Eventually, their prices will hit a point that end users cannot afford, forcing a move toward alternative energy sources.

Concern over the impact of fossil fuel use on the environment and its contribution to climate change continues to grow. The first international agreement on fighting climate change was the Kyoto Protocol , adopted in 1997. In 2015, 196 different parties adopted the Paris Agreement, an international treaty on climate change. By signing, the parties agreed to take steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The alternatives to fossil fuels require ample lead time to be put into place. That process has begun slowly. Wind power generated about 6.3% of American electrical power in 2017 and was the source of about 8.4% in 2020. In 2023, wind energy provided 10% of total electricity nationwide including more than 60% of the power in Iowa and 40% in South Dakota, Kansas, and Oklahoma.

Advantages of Investing in Nonrenewable Resources

There are a few specific, unique benefits of investing in nonrenewable resources. These benefits are not meant to be an exhaustive list, but investing in nonrenewable resources may result in the:

• Potential for Profitability: Investing in nonrenewable resources such as oil, natural gas, and minerals can be highly profitable due to their scarcity. They also may be profitable because they play a role in various industries worldwide. The limited supply of these resources coupled with potentially persistent global demand means investors may be able to capture price increases over time (especially if demand for that resource grows). Consider how the global oil markets are expected to increase by 800,000 barrels per day in 2024.
• Potential for Stability and Predictability: Nonrenewable resources can offer a level of stability and predictability that can be attractive to investors. For example, consider how engrained oil and gas are in our society. Even though supply can fluctuate and emerging technologies may be moving us away from as much consumption, the world is still heavily reliant on certain resources. In turn, the demand for certain nonrenewable resources may remain steady even during economic declines (especially if they are used for essential, non-elective reasons). The same report as above from the Department of Energy shows the spot price of crude oil is forecast to hover between $80 and $100 through the end of 2025.
• Continual Global Demand: Another advantage of investing in nonrenewable resources lies in their global presence. For instance, some public companies may only cater to clients in the United States. Meanwhile, nonrenewable resources may be sourced from emerging markets and used around the world. For investors not wanting to lock into certain specific economies, nonrenewable resources could be an international investment that spans geographic borders. OPEC expects an increase in production from the United States, Canada, and Brazil, for example.

Limitations of Investing in Nonrenewable Energy

There are also some downsides to keep in mind when considering investing in nonrenewable energy:

• Environmental and Social Impact: One significant disadvantage of investing in nonrenewable resources is their detrimental environmental and social impacts. Extraction and processing of these resources can lead to deforestation, habitat destruction, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions . Political stances aside, these activities may contribute to climate change and can harm local communities' health and livelihoods. Investors must balance financial implications with potential non-financial outcomes. 
• Volatility and Price Uncertainty: In the advantages section above, we talked about stability as an advantage. Unfortunately, nonrenewables may also come with high levels of volatility and uncertainty. Nonrenewable resources can be subject to significant price volatility due to geopolitical tensions, changes in global supply, technological advancements, and regulatory shifts. For instance, though we discussed growth in the section prior, the International Energy Agency still notes that the growth rate is slowing.
• Growing Costs: When investors think of nonrenewable energy, they may think about higher revenue due to the limited supply of a good. However, as that resource has a smaller and smaller supply that can be extracted from Earth, extraction costs may exponentially increase. This may mean the net margin of nonrenewable energy may fluctuate or even diminish if it becomes too difficult to affordably extract that resource. In addition, legislation like amendments to the Fluid Mineral Leases and Leasing Process rule increase leasing costs.
• Technological Advancements: We touched on this in a bullet above, but investing in nonrenewable resources raises concerns about long-term sustainability due to changes in technology. As society considers alternative ways of doing things and comes up with more modern solutions that rely on renewable energy sources, nonrenewable energy faces long-term obsolescence in favor of more efficient solutions.

Examples of Nonrenewable Resource ETFs

There are plenty of ETFs that invest in nonrenewable resources. In addition, many ETFs invest in companies associated with the extraction and deployment of those resources. Some examples of these ETFs include: 

• SPDR S&P Oil & Gas Exploration & Production ETF (XOP): XOP tracks the performance of companies engaged in the exploration and production of oil and gas. It includes a broad range of firms involved in upstream activities within the energy sector.
• Energy Select Sector SPDR Fund (XLE): XLE is one of the largest ETFs focusing and includes major integrated oil companies, refining and marketing firms, and exploration and production companies.
• iShares U.S. Oil & Gas Exploration & Production ETF (IEO): IEO tracks the investment results of an index composed of U.S. equities in the oil and gas exploration and production sector. It focuses on companies involved in the discovery, extraction, and production of oil and natural gas.
• VanEck Vectors Oil Services ETF (OIH): OIH invests in companies that provide services to the oil industry, such as drilling, equipment, and infrastructure. It includes firms involved in oilfield services, equipment, and oil drilling.
• SPDR S&P Oil & Gas Equipment & Services ETF (XES): XES focuses on companies that provide equipment, services, or technology to the oil and gas exploration and production industry. It includes companies involved in drilling, equipment manufacturing, and services.
• VanEck Vectors Unconventional Oil & Gas ETF (FRAK): FRAK tracks the performance of companies involved in the exploration, production, and distribution of unconventional oil and gas, including shale oil and gas.

What Defines a Nonrenewable Resource?

Nonrenewable resources are derived from the Earth— in a finite supply that can take billions of years to replenish. Historically, many nonrenewables have been relatively cheap to extract. But as their supply continues to diminish, the cost of this extraction may rise in price, leading customers to use alternative sources, such as solar and wind energy.

What Are the Different Types of Nonrenewable Resources?

Among the most common examples of natural resources are crude oil, coal, uranium, and mineral sources such as gold. One subset of nonrenewable resources includes crude oil and natural gas. Both of these substances are made out of organic carbon material, depending on the form it takes after heating and compressing over time. Another form of nonrenewables is minerals, which include gold, silver, and iron. Unlike crude oil and natural gas, these are quite difficult and expensive to extract. Meanwhile, different types of groundwater are nonrenewables when they do not replenish at their draining speed.

How Do Nonrenewables Differ From Renewable Resources?

Since nonrenewables, by definition, will diminish in supply over time, the law of supply and demand suggests that their price will continue to rise . Renewables, by contrast, have an infinite supply. However, at the same time, the cost and time required to establish them will be lengthy. More recently, demand for renewables has grown in tandem with governmental incentives, with many of their costs decreasing over time. Solar energy is one prime example of this trend.

How Do Nonrenewable Resources Affect Climate Change?

Humans depend heavily on fossil fuels like crude oil, natural gas, and coal to supply energy. Burning these commodities release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This is the primary greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change. The more fossil fuels we burn, the more gases build up. This warms up the climate and causes shifts in the atmosphere, in the water, and on the land.

What Are Some Examples of Renewable Resources?

Renewable resources are those whose supplies are abundant and can be easily replenished. Unlike nonrenewable resources, they are considered to be sustainable. Examples of renewable resources are the sun, wind, water, heat from the Earth, and biomass.

Fossil fuels are normally the first thing most people think of when they hear the word nonrenewable resources. Collectively, these are resources that come from the earth. They are extracted and converted for human consumption, usually as energy sources. What sets them apart from renewable resources is that their supplies are finite and they aren't considered sustainable because of the damage they do to the environment.

National Geographic. " Nonrenewable Resources ."

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. " What is the Kyoto Protocol? "

United Nations Climate Change. " The Paris Agreement ."

U.S. Department of Energy. " Wind Market Reports: 2021 Edition ."

U.S. Energy Information Administration. " Electricity Explained: Electricity in the United States ."

Department of Energy. " U.S. Department of Energy Projects Strong Growth in U.S. Wind Power Sector ."

Department of Energy. " Short-Term Energy Outlook ."

International Energy Agency. " Oil Demand Growing at a Slower Pace as Post-Covid Rebound Runs Its Course ."

U.S. Department of the Interior. " Interior Department Finalizes Action to Ensure Fair Return to Taxpayers, Strengthen Accountability for Oil and Gas Operations on Public Lands ."

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renewable energy , usable energy derived from replenishable sources such as the Sun ( solar energy ), wind ( wind power ), rivers ( hydroelectric power ), hot springs ( geothermal energy ), tides ( tidal power ), and biomass ( biofuels ).

At the beginning of the 21st century, about 80 percent of the world’s energy supply was derived from fossil fuels such as coal , petroleum , and natural gas . Fossil fuels are finite resources; most estimates suggest that the proven reserves of oil are large enough to meet global demand at least until the middle of the 21st century. Fossil fuel combustion has a number of negative environmental consequences. Fossil-fueled power plants emit air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxides, and toxic chemicals (heavy metals: mercury , chromium , and arsenic ), and mobile sources, such as fossil-fueled vehicles, emit nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide , and particulate matter. Exposure to these pollutants can cause heart disease , asthma , and other human health problems. In addition, emissions from fossil fuel combustion are responsible for acid rain , which has led to the acidification of many lakes and consequent damage to aquatic life, leaf damage in many forests, and the production of smog in or near many urban areas. Furthermore, the burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), one of the main greenhouse gases that cause global warming .

In contrast, renewable energy sources accounted for nearly 20 percent of global energy consumption at the beginning of the 21st century, largely from traditional uses of biomass such as wood for heating and cooking . By 2015 about 16 percent of the world’s total electricity came from large hydroelectric power plants, whereas other types of renewable energy (such as solar, wind, and geothermal) accounted for 6 percent of total electricity generation. Some energy analysts consider nuclear power to be a form of renewable energy because of its low carbon emissions; nuclear power generated 10.6 percent of the world’s electricity in 2015.

Growth in wind power exceeded 20 percent and photovoltaics grew at 30 percent annually in the 1990s, and renewable energy technologies continued to expand throughout the early 21st century. Between 2001 and 2017 world total installed wind power capacity increased by a factor of 22, growing from 23,900 to 539,581 megawatts. Photovoltaic capacity also expanded, increasing by 50 percent in 2016 alone. The European Union (EU), which produced an estimated 6.38 percent of its energy from renewable sources in 2005, adopted a goal in 2007 to raise that figure to 20 percent by 2020. By 2016 some 17 percent of the EU’s energy came from renewable sources. The goal also included plans to cut emissions of carbon dioxide by 20 percent and to ensure that 10 percent of all fuel consumption comes from biofuels . The EU was well on its way to achieving those targets by 2017. Between 1990 and 2016 the countries of the EU reduced carbon emissions by 23 percent and increased biofuel production to 5.5 percent of all fuels consumed in the region. In the United States numerous states have responded to concerns over climate change and reliance on imported fossil fuels by setting goals to increase renewable energy over time. For example, California required its major utility companies to produce 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2010, and by the end of that year California utilities were within 1 percent of the goal. In 2008 California increased this requirement to 33 percent by 2020, and in 2017 the state further increased its renewable-use target to 50 percent by 2030.

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy comes from sources that will not be used up in our lifetimes, such as the sun and wind.

Earth Science, Experiential Learning, Engineering, Geology

Wind Turbines in a Sheep Pasture

Wind turbines use the power of wind to generate energy. This is just one source of renewable energy.

Photograph by Jesus Keller/ Shutterstock

The wind, the sun, and Earth are sources of  renewable energy . These energy sources naturally renew, or replenish themselves.

Wind, sunlight, and the planet have energy that transforms in ways we can see and feel. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy from the sun to Earth in the sunlight shining on the ground and the warmth we feel when sunlight shines on our skin. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in wind’s ability to pull kites higher into the sky and shake the leaves on trees. We can see and feel evidence of the transfer of energy in the geothermal energy of steam vents and geysers .

People have created different ways to capture the energy from these renewable sources.

Solar Energy

Solar energy can be captured “actively” or “passively.”

Active solar energy uses special technology to capture the sun’s rays. The two main types of equipment are photovoltaic cells (also called PV cells or solar cells) and mirrors that focus sunlight in a specific spot. These active solar technologies use sunlight to generate electricity , which we use to power lights, heating systems, computers, and televisions.

Passive solar energy does not use any equipment. Instead, it gets energy from the way sunlight naturally changes throughout the day. For example, people can build houses so their windows face the path of the sun. This means the house will get more heat from the sun. It will take less energy from other sources to heat the house.

Other examples of passive solar technology are green roofs , cool roofs, and radiant barriers . Green roofs are completely covered with plants. Plants can get rid of pollutants in rainwater and air. They help make the local environment cleaner.

Cool roofs are painted white to better reflect sunlight. Radiant barriers are made of a reflective covering, such as aluminum. They both reflect the sun’s heat instead of absorbing it. All these types of roofs help lower the amount of energy needed to cool the building.

Advantages and Disadvantages There are many advantages to using solar energy. PV cells last for a long time, about 20 years.

However, there are reasons why solar power cannot be used as the only power source in a community. It can be expensive to install PV cells or build a building using passive solar technology.

Sunshine can also be hard to predict. It can be blocked by clouds, and the sun doesn’t shine at night. Different parts of Earth receive different amounts of sunlight based on location, the time of year, and the time of day.

Wind Energy

People have been harnessing the wind’s energy for a long, long time. Five-thousand years ago, ancient Egyptians made boats powered by the wind. In 200 B.C.E., people used windmills to grind grain in the Middle East and pump water in China.

Today, we capture the wind’s energy with wind turbines . A turbine is similar to a windmill; it has a very tall tower with two or three propeller-like blades at the top. These blades are turned by the wind. The blades turn a generator (located inside the tower), which creates electricity.

Groups of wind turbines are known as wind farms . Wind farms can be found near farmland, in narrow mountain passes, and even in the ocean, where there are steadier and stronger winds. Wind turbines anchored in the ocean are called “ offshore wind farms.”

Wind farms create electricity for nearby homes, schools, and other buildings.

Advantages and Disadvantages Wind energy can be very efficient . In places like the Midwest in the United States and along coasts, steady winds can provide cheap, reliable electricity.

Another great advantage of wind power is that it is a “clean” form of energy. Wind turbines do not burn fuel or emit any pollutants into the air.

Wind is not always a steady source of energy, however. Wind speed changes constantly, depending on the time of day, weather , and geographic location. Currently, it cannot be used to provide electricity for all our power needs.

Wind turbines can also be dangerous for bats and birds. These animals cannot always judge how fast the blades are moving and crash into them.

Geothermal Energy

Deep beneath the surface is Earth’s core . The center of Earth is extremely hot—thought to be over 6,000 °C (about 10,800 °F). The heat is constantly moving toward the surface.

We can see some of Earth’s heat when it bubbles to the surface. Geothermal energy can melt underground rocks into magma and cause the magma to bubble to the surface as lava . Geothermal energy can also heat underground sources of water and force it to spew out from the surface. This stream of water is called a geyser.

However, most of Earth’s heat stays underground and makes its way out very, very slowly.

We can access underground geothermal heat in different ways. One way of using geothermal energy is with “geothermal heat pumps.” A pipe of water loops between a building and holes dug deep underground. The water is warmed by the geothermal energy underground and brings the warmth aboveground to the building. Geothermal heat pumps can be used to heat houses, sidewalks, and even parking lots.

Another way to use geothermal energy is with steam. In some areas of the world, there is underground steam that naturally rises to the surface. The steam can be piped straight to a power plant. However, in other parts of the world, the ground is dry. Water must be injected underground to create steam. When the steam comes to the surface, it is used to turn a generator and create electricity.

In Iceland, there are large reservoirs of underground water. Almost 90 percent of people in Iceland use geothermal as an energy source to heat their homes and businesses.

Advantages and Disadvantages An advantage of geothermal energy is that it is clean. It does not require any fuel or emit any harmful pollutants into the air.

Geothermal energy is only avaiable in certain parts of the world. Another disadvantage of using geothermal energy is that in areas of the world where there is only dry heat underground, large quantities of freshwater are used to make steam. There may not be a lot of freshwater. People need water for drinking, cooking, and bathing.

Biomass Energy

Biomass is any material that comes from plants or microorganisms that were recently living. Plants create energy from the sun through photosynthesis . This energy is stored in the plants even after they die.

Trees, branches, scraps of bark, and recycled paper are common sources of biomass energy. Manure, garbage, and crops , such as corn, soy, and sugar cane, can also be used as biomass feedstocks .

We get energy from biomass by burning it. Wood chips, manure, and garbage are dried out and compressed into squares called “briquettes.” These briquettes are so dry that they do not absorb water. They can be stored and burned to create heat or generate electricity.

Biomass can also be converted into biofuel . Biofuels are mixed with regular gasoline and can be used to power cars and trucks. Biofuels release less harmful pollutants than pure gasoline.

Advantages and Disadvantages A major advantage of biomass is that it can be stored and then used when it is needed.

Growing crops for biofuels, however, requires large amounts of land and pesticides . Land could be used for food instead of biofuels. Some pesticides could pollute the air and water.

Biomass energy can also be a nonrenewable energy source. Biomass energy relies on biomass feedstocks—plants that are processed and burned to create electricity. Biomass feedstocks can include crops, such as corn or soy, as well as wood. If people do not replant biomass feedstocks as fast as they use them, biomass energy becomes a non-renewable energy source.

Hydroelectric Energy

Hydroelectric energy is made by flowing water. Most hydroelectric power plants are located on large dams , which control the flow of a river.

Dams block the river and create an artificial lake, or reservoir. A controlled amount of water is forced through tunnels in the dam. As water flows through the tunnels, it turns huge turbines and generates electricity.

Advantages and Disadvantages Hydroelectric energy is fairly inexpensive to harness. Dams do not need to be complex, and the resources to build them are not difficult to obtain. Rivers flow all over the world, so the energy source is available to millions of people.

Hydroelectric energy is also fairly reliable. Engineers control the flow of water through the dam, so the flow does not depend on the weather (the way solar and wind energies do).

However, hydroelectric power plants are damaging to the environment. When a river is dammed, it creates a large lake behind the dam. This lake (sometimes called a reservoir) drowns the original river habitat deep underwater. Sometimes, people build dams that can drown entire towns underwater. The people who live in the town or village must move to a new area.

Hydroelectric power plants don’t work for a very long time: Some can only supply power for 20 or 30 years. Silt , or dirt from a riverbed, builds up behind the dam and slows the flow of water.

Other Renewable Energy Sources

Scientists and engineers are constantly working to harness other renewable energy sources. Three of the most promising are tidal energy , wave energy , and algal (or algae) fuel.

Tidal energy harnesses the power of ocean tides to generate electricity. Some tidal energy projects use the moving tides to turn the blades of a turbine. Other projects use small dams to continually fill reservoirs at high tide and slowly release the water (and turn turbines) at low tide.

Wave energy harnesses waves from the ocean, lakes, or rivers. Some wave energy projects use the same equipment that tidal energy projects do—dams and standing turbines. Other wave energy projects float directly on waves. The water’s constant movement over and through these floating pieces of equipment turns turbines and creates electricity.

Algal fuel is a type of biomass energy that uses the unique chemicals in seaweed to create a clean and renewable biofuel. Algal fuel does not need the acres of cropland that other biofuel feedstocks do.

Renewable Nations

These nations (or groups of nations) produce the most energy using renewable resources. Many of them are also the leading producers of nonrenewable energy: China, European Union, United States, Brazil, and Canada

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Transitioning to renewable energy: Challenges and opportunities

Nutifafa Yao Doumon

Countries around the world are exploring ways to transition away from fossil fuels. The transition, prompted by carbon emissions that exacerbate climate change, is vast and includes renewables such as solar, wind, and hydro. But is transitioning as simple as choosing renewables for energy? What other facets must be considered in this transition? Nutifafa Yao Doumon is an IEE faculty member and an assistant professor in the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. He and his students have been thinking about what the transition will require, what challenges lie ahead, and what could go right/wrong in the process.

What factors should be considered in the transition to renewable energy?

I recently had a similar discussion with my graduate students in MatSE 597 (Organic/Hybrid Optoelectronic & Photovoltaic Devices), a course that discusses renewable energy, sustainability, and energy transition . We agreed that meeting the energy transition is a complex challenge that requires a multifaceted approach. Though the following factors may not be exhaustive, they are crucial for the transition to renewable energy:

• Investment in renewable energy infrastructures
• Technology innovation and research and development (R&D)
• Energy efficiency measures
• Policy support and regulatory frameworks
• Global cooperation and collective action

What are some of the main challenges in the transition to solar energy?

The energy transition  is not a simple task. It faces many multifaceted challenges, including technological, environmental, societal, economic, and geopolitical issues. Here, I will comment briefly on the technological and geopolitical aspects  to give you a sense of the complexity we are dealing with.

From a geopolitical perspective, it is crucial to acknowledge the concerns of many regions or countries in the global south . They believe the West is coercing them into adopting renewable technologies , arguing that they have not been the main contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and that transitioning to other energy sources is not a priority, especially when they have not yet reached the level of development that the West has experienced. They believe, especially in Africa, that this may stall Africa’s rise out of poverty. These opinions are thoroughly expressed in two op-eds authored separately by the ex-vice-president of Nigeria, Prof. Yemi Osinbajo in an  Economist op-ed  (paywall) , and the president of Uganda, his excellency Yoweri K. Museveni, in a  Wall Street Journal op-ed  (paywall). This could be a whole debate on its own.

From a technological perspective, the energy transition seems to be equated with transitioning entirely from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources through novel technologies. While this is an ideal scenario for the betterment of the planet, the reality could involve drastically reducing fossil fuels and significantly increasing renewable fuels. Most renewable energy technologies are not fully mature and do not yet match fossil fuels in terms of societal integration. Silicon-based solar technology, the most established, has an efficiency of 26% and a lifespan of 20-25 years. Many other solar technologies, such as organic, dye-sensitized, and perovskite solar cells, are still under investigation and not yet market-ready due to their low efficiency and instability.

The biggest challenge to solar technology is that it cannot be a standalone solution; it needs complementary storage technologies like batteries to be fully accessible 24/7. Solar installations also require significant land, often in farming communities. Mining for materials to sustain solar and battery technologies opens a new set of challenges. There are many ramifications in terms of challenges that solar power or panels face during their lifespan, including disposal or recycling of this technology.

What opportunities exist to make the transition more just and sustainable?

We have many opportunities and lessons from our past actions and inactions to make the transition more just and sustainable. Deploying some of the renewable technologies can be region-, location-, or geography-dependent. For example, solar energy is highly efficient in hot climates, predominantly found in the global south, while wind energy is more suitable for regions with high natural wind speeds.

Global cooperation and collective action are crucial for investing in renewable energy infrastructures and driving technology innovation and R&D geared toward making the transition just and sustainable. Our past actions have shown that raw materials and minerals mining and processing can negatively impact deprived, rural, local, or Indigenous communities. This past knowledge gives us an opportunity to do better this time. However, this will require the involvement of communities themselves, the right policies, governments, and political will.

How could these opportunities impact researchers' work?

These opportunities could open the door for research diversification and inter-/multi-disciplinary team collaboration. Investing money and time into innovation and R&D of new technology for renewable energy harvesting, conversion, and storage is vital. It is also crucial to ensure that communities appreciate the efforts and technologies that could potentially replace or be in the mix with existing fossil fuel-based assets and gadgets.

Therefore, I see a considerable impact not only on how the community of researchers should approach research from an interdisciplinary and community-engagement perspective but also on how renewable technology companies and industries approach their R&D portfolios. Topical research must also involve pre- and post-technology development and deployment assessment. Researchers are becoming increasingly aware of their research’s carbon footprint, developing new and efficient work methods, and embedding sustainability in their processes.

What could go wrong if we are not mindful of these challenges?

The danger here is friction between the global south and global north and imminent fracture on the geopolitical front. Global warming and climate change are universal threats and must be confronted together. Working together voluntarily and collectively as equals, knowing our strengths and weaknesses, is the right way forward. Otherwise, countries in the global south may resist the push toward a green energy transition, becoming immediate and/or future polluters of the planet, which contrasts with the desired outcome.

On the technological side, though it may be insignificant, there is a risk that we may fail to fully realize the technological dream and deploy all renewable energy sources in time to mitigate global warming. Finally, in the quest for these technologies, we may end up worsening environmental pollution levels, health hazards, living standards, and well-being of different communities globally.

What could go right if we address these challenges?

Almost everything, from solving energy crises in major geographical locations through global cooperation and collective action to protecting our collective environment through equal treatment, climate justice, and mitigating global warming. A collective, well-coordinated effort can help us achieve our renewable energy and climate goals, creating a more sustainable and equitable energy landscape for future generations.

Nutifafa Yao Doumon  is an assistant professor and Virginia S. & Philip L. Walker Jr. Faculty Fellow in the College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. With a background in physics, nanoscience, and leadership, his main interest focuses on materials for solar technologies. He conducts research into Optoelectronic and photovoltaic devices, looking at stability testing and chemical characterization of the active layer, indoor/outdoor testing of organic/perovskite photovoltaic modules, and characterization of degradation and failure modes/mechanisms.

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Design of a sustainable supply chain network of biomass renewable energy in the case of disruption

• Aslani, Leila
• Hasan-Zadeh, Atefeh
• Kazemzadeh, Yousef
• Sheikh-Azadi, Amir-Hosein

Non-renewable energy sources, including fossil fuels, are a type of energy whose consumption rate far exceeds its natural production rate. Therefore, non-renewable resources will be exhausted if alternative energy is not fully developed, leading to an energy crisis in the near future. In this paper, a mathematical model has been proposed for the design of the biomass supply chain of field residues that includes several fields where residue is transferred to hubs after collecting the residue in the hub, the residue is transferred to reactors. In reactors, the residue is converted into gas, which is transferred to condenser and transformers, converted into electricity and sent to demand points through the network. In this paper, the criteria of stability and disturbance were considered, which have been less discussed in related research, and the purpose of the proposed model was to maximize the profit from the sale of energy, including the selling price minus the costs. Genetic algorithm (GA) and simulated annealing (SA) algorithm have been used to solve the model. Then, to prove the complexity of the problem, different and random examples have been presented in different dimensions of the problem. Also, the efficiency of the algorithm in small and large dimensions was proved by comparing GA and SA due to the low deviation of the solutions and the methods used have provided acceptable results suitable for all decision-makers. Also, the effectiveness of the algorithm in small and large dimensions is proven by comparing the genetic algorithm and simulated annealing, and the genetic algorithm's values are better, considering the deviation of 2.9%.and have provided solution methods suitable for all decision makers.

• Biomass supply chain;
• Genetic algorithm;
• Simulated annealing algorithm;

• Conventional And Nonconventional Sources Of Energy

Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

Energy is the ability of a physical system to perform work. We use energy in our daily lives from various sources for doing work. We use muscular energy for carrying out physical work, electrical energy for running multiple appliances, chemical energy for cooking food, etc. For this, we need to know the different energy sources to obtain energy in its usable form. This article will familiarize you with two important sources of energy: conventional energy and non-conventional energy.

Sources of Energy

• Conventional Sources
• Non-Conventional Sources

Conventional Sources of Energy

Conventional Sources of Energy are also known as non-renewable sources of energy and are available in limited quantity apart from hydro-electric power. Further, it is classified under commercial and non-commercial energy.

Commercial Energy Sources

Coal, electricity and petroleum are known as commercial energy since the consumer needs to pay its price to buy them.

Coal is the most important source of energy. There are more than 148790 coal deposits in India, and between 2005-2006, the annual production went up to 343 million tons. India is the fourth-largest coal-producing country, and the deposits are primarily found in Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Bengal.

Oil and Natural Gas

Oil is considered liquid gold and one of the crucial energy sources in India and the world. Oil is primarily used in planes, automobiles, trains and ships. The total oil production in India was 0.3 million tons in 1950-51, which increased up to 32.4 million tons in 2000-01. It is mainly found in Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai.

Electricity

Electricity is a common form of energy used for domestic and commercial purposes, and it is mainly utilized in electrical appliances like fridges, T.V, washing machines and air conditioning.

The major sources of power generation are:

• Nuclear Power
• Thermal Power
• Hydro-electric power

Non-commercial Energy Sources

Generally, the freely available energy sources are considered non-commercial energy sources. Examples of non-commercial energy sources include straw, dried dung, firewood./p>

Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Non-conventional sources are also known as renewable sources of energy . Examples of non-conventional sources of energy include solar energy, bioenergy, tidal energy and wind energy.

Solar Energy

Solar Energy is produced by sunlight. The photovoltaic cells are exposed to sunlight based on the form of electricity that needs to be produced. The energy is utilized for cooking and distillation of water.

Wind Energy

Wind energy is generated by harnessing the power of wind and mostly used in operating water pumps for irrigation purposes. India stands as the second-largest country in the generation of wind power.

Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is generated by exploiting the tidal waves of the sea. This source is yet to be tapped due to the lack of cost-effective technology.

Difference Between Conventional and Non-conventional Sources of Energy

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Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What are the advantages of conventional energy sources, what are the disadvantages of conventional energy sources, what are the advantages of non-conventional sources of energy, what is the importance of the non-conventional source of energy, which is the largest non-conventional source of energy.

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