are small zooplankton found in freshwater inland lakes and are thought to switch their mode of reproduction from asexual to sexual in response to extreme temperatures (Mitchell 1999). Lakes containing have an average summer surface temperature of 20°C (Harper 1995) but may increase by more than 15% when expose to warm water effluent from power plants, paper mills, and chemical industry (Baker et al. 2000). Could an increase in lake temperature caused by industrial thermal pollution affect the survivorship and reproduction of ?
The sex of is mediated by the environment rather than genetics. Under optimal environmental conditions, populations consist of asexually reproducing females. When the environment shifts may be queued to reproduce sexually resulting in the production of male offspring and females carrying haploid eggs in sacs called ephippia (Mitchell 1999).
The purpose of this laboratory study is to examine the effects of increased water temperature on survivorship and reproduction. This study will help us characterize the magnitude of environmental change required to induce the onset of the sexual life cycle in . Because are known to be a sensitive environmental indicator species (Baker et al. 2000) and share similar structural and physiological features with many aquatic species, they serve as a good model for examining the effects of increasing water temperature on reproduction in a variety of aquatic invertebrates.
We hypothesized that populations reared in water temperatures ranging from 24-26 °C would have lower survivorship, higher male/female ratio among the offspring, and more female offspring carrying ephippia as compared with grown in water temperatures of 20-22°C. To test this hypothesis we reared populations in tanks containing water at either 24 +/- 2°C or 20 +/- 2°C. Over 10 days, we monitored survivorship, determined the sex of the offspring, and counted the number of female offspring containing ephippia.
Comments:
Background information
· Opening paragraph provides good focus immediately. The study organism, gender switching response, and temperature influence are mentioned in the first sentence. Although it does a good job documenting average lake water temperature and changes due to industrial run-off, it fails to make an argument that the 15% increase in lake temperature could be considered “extreme” temperature change.
· The study question is nicely embedded within relevant, well-cited background information. Alternatively, it could be stated as the first sentence in the introduction, or after all background information has been discussed before the hypothesis.
Rationale
· Good. Well-defined purpose for study; to examine the degree of environmental change necessary to induce the Daphnia sexual life
cycle.
How will introductions be evaluated? The following is part of the rubric we will be using to evaluate your papers.
0 = inadequate (C, D or F) | 1 = adequate (BC) | 2 = good (B) | 3 = very good (AB) | 4 = excellent (A) | |
Introduction BIG PICTURE: Did the Intro convey why experiment was performed and what it was designed to test?
| Introduction provides little to no relevant information. (This often results in a hypothesis that “comes out of nowhere.”) | Many key components are very weak or missing; those stated are unclear and/or are not stated concisely. Weak/missing components make it difficult to follow the rest of the paper. e.g., background information is not focused on a specific question and minimal biological rationale is presented such that hypothesis isn’t entirely logical
| Covers most key components but could be done much more logically, clearly, and/or concisely. e.g., biological rationale not fully developed but still supports hypothesis. Remaining components are done reasonably well, though there is still room for improvement. | Concisely & clearly covers all but one key component (w/ exception of rationale; see left) clearly covers all key components but could be a little more concise and/or clear. e.g., has done a reasonably nice job with the Intro but fails to state the approach OR has done a nice job with Intro but has also included some irrelevant background information
| Clearly, concisely, & logically presents all key components: relevant & correctly cited background information, question, biological rationale, hypothesis, approach. |
Learn how to write a strong and efficient research paper introduction by following the suitable structure and avoiding typical errors.
An introduction to any type of paper is sometimes misunderstood as the beginning; yet, an introduction is actually intended to present your chosen subject to the audience in a way that makes it more appealing and leaves your readers thirsty for more information. After the title and abstract, your audience will read the introduction, thus it’s critical to get off to a solid start.
This article includes instructions on how to write an introduction for a research paper that engages the reader in your research. You can produce a strong opening for your research paper if you stick to the format and a few basic principles.
An introduction is the opening section of a research paper and the section that a reader is likely to read first, in which the objective and goals of the subsequent writing are stated.
The introduction serves numerous purposes. It provides context for your research, explains your topic and objectives, and provides an outline of the work. A solid introduction will establish the tone for the remainder of your paper, enticing readers to continue reading through the methodology, findings, and discussion.
Even though introductions are generally presented at the beginning of a document, we must distinguish an introduction from the beginning of your research. An introduction, as the name implies, is supposed to introduce your subject without extending it. All relevant information and facts should be placed in the body and conclusion, not the introduction.
Before explaining how to write an introduction for a research paper , it’s necessary to comprehend a structure that will make your introduction stronger and more straightforward.
A hook is one of the most effective research introduction openers. A hook’s objective is to stimulate the reader’s interest to read the research paper. There are various approaches you may take to generate a strong hook: startling facts, a question, a brief overview, or even a quotation.
Following an excellent hook, you should present a wide overview of your major issue and some background information on your research. If you’re unsure about how to begin an essay introduction, the best approach is to offer a basic explanation of your topic before delving into specific issues. Simply said, you should begin with general information and then narrow it down to your relevant topics.
After offering some background information regarding your research’s main topic, go on to give readers a better understanding of what you’ll be covering throughout your research. In this section of your introduction, you should swiftly clarify your important topics in the sequence in which they will be addressed later, gradually introducing your thesis statement. You can use some The following are some critical questions to address in this section of your introduction: Who? What? Where? When? How? And why is that?
The thesis statement, which must be stated in the beginning clause of your research since your entire research revolves around it, is the most important component of your research.
A thesis statement presents your audience with a quick overview of the research’s main assertion. In the body section of your work, your key argument is what you will expose or debate about it. An excellent thesis statement is usually very succinct, accurate, explicit, clear, and focused. Typically, your thesis should be at the conclusion of your introductory paragraph/section.
Aside from the good structure, here are a few tips to make your introduction strong and accurate:
Check out what not to do and what to avoid now that you know the structure and how to write an introduction for a research paper .
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Published on 9 September 2022 by Tegan George and Shona McCombes.
The introduction is the first section of your thesis or dissertation , appearing right after the table of contents . Your introduction draws your reader in, setting the stage for your research with a clear focus, purpose, and direction.
Your introduction should include:
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How to start your introduction, topic and context, focus and scope, relevance and importance, questions and objectives, overview of the structure, thesis introduction example, introduction checklist, frequently asked questions about introductions.
Although your introduction kicks off your dissertation, it doesn’t have to be the first thing you write – in fact, it’s often one of the very last parts to be completed (just before your abstract ).
It’s a good idea to write a rough draft of your introduction as you begin your research, to help guide you. If you wrote a research proposal , consider using this as a template, as it contains many of the same elements. However, be sure to revise your introduction throughout the writing process, making sure it matches the content of your ensuing sections.
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Begin by introducing your research topic and giving any necessary background information. It’s important to contextualise your research and generate interest. Aim to show why your topic is timely or important. You may want to mention a relevant news item, academic debate, or practical problem.
After a brief introduction to your general area of interest, narrow your focus and define the scope of your research.
You can narrow this down in many ways, such as by:
It’s essential to share your motivation for doing this research, as well as how it relates to existing work on your topic. Further, you should also mention what new insights you expect it will contribute.
Start by giving a brief overview of the current state of research. You should definitely cite the most relevant literature, but remember that you will conduct a more in-depth survey of relevant sources in the literature review section, so there’s no need to go too in-depth in the introduction.
Depending on your field, the importance of your research might focus on its practical application (e.g., in policy or management) or on advancing scholarly understanding of the topic (e.g., by developing theories or adding new empirical data). In many cases, it will do both.
Ultimately, your introduction should explain how your thesis or dissertation:
Perhaps the most important part of your introduction is your questions and objectives, as it sets up the expectations for the rest of your thesis or dissertation. How you formulate your research questions and research objectives will depend on your discipline, topic, and focus, but you should always clearly state the central aim of your research.
If your research aims to test hypotheses , you can formulate them here. Your introduction is also a good place for a conceptual framework that suggests relationships between variables .
To help guide your reader, end your introduction with an outline of the structure of the thesis or dissertation to follow. Share a brief summary of each chapter, clearly showing how each contributes to your central aims. However, be careful to keep this overview concise: 1-2 sentences should be enough.
I. Introduction
Human language consists of a set of vowels and consonants which are combined to form words. During the speech production process, thoughts are converted into spoken utterances to convey a message. The appropriate words and their meanings are selected in the mental lexicon (Dell & Burger, 1997). This pre-verbal message is then grammatically coded, during which a syntactic representation of the utterance is built.
Speech, language, and voice disorders affect the vocal cords, nerves, muscles, and brain structures, which result in a distorted language reception or speech production (Sataloff & Hawkshaw, 2014). The symptoms vary from adding superfluous words and taking pauses to hoarseness of the voice, depending on the type of disorder (Dodd, 2005). However, distortions of the speech may also occur as a result of a disease that seems unrelated to speech, such as multiple sclerosis or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
This study aims to determine which acoustic parameters are suitable for the automatic detection of exacerbations in patients suffering from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) by investigating which aspects of speech differ between COPD patients and healthy speakers and which aspects differ between COPD patients in exacerbation and stable COPD patients.
I have introduced my research topic in an engaging way.
I have provided necessary context to help the reader understand my topic.
I have clearly specified the focus of my research.
I have shown the relevance and importance of the dissertation topic .
I have clearly stated the problem or question that my research addresses.
I have outlined the specific objectives of the research .
I have provided an overview of the dissertation’s structure .
You've written a strong introduction for your thesis or dissertation. Use the other checklists to continue improving your dissertation.
The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:
Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.
This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .
Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.
They summarise the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.
Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.
George, T. & McCombes, S. (2022, September 09). How to Write a Thesis or Dissertation Introduction. Scribbr. Retrieved 18 June 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/introduction/
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Parts of the paper, writing the introduction, example of an introduction.
The development of your introduction can make or break your paper. Once you have determined the purpose of your writing and have a topic in mind, you can begin writing the introduction. Three main parts must be included to establish a well-written introduction: introduce your topic, interest the reader, and make the last sentence your thesis statement. Watch the following video to see an introduction come together.
When introducing your topic, you want to grab the reader's attention. Here are some ways to do:
Look at the following example of grabbing the reader's attention:
How important is an attachment? It is said that without a secure attachment, human development can be severely impaired, and in extreme cases death can occur (Huffman, 2009). Different aspects of attachment have been studied by many researchers, like John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth, and through their research and an experiment of my own I will show how important attachment is to human development.
How will the topic develop (thesis statement).
The purpose of the thesis statement is to inform the audience, in one sentence, how the chosen topic will develop throughout the entire paper. If you list three points that will support your thesis, you will address each of those three points in your paper in the same order you listed them. (If you find that after you start writing the paper, you have added ideas that were not stated in your thesis, you will have to revise your thesis to mirror your paper.)
Let's look at an example. The bolded sentence is the thesis.
How important is an attachment? It is said that without a secure attachment, human development can be severely impaired, and in extreme cases death can occur (Huffman, 2009). Different aspects of attachment have been studied by many researchers, like John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth, and through their research and an experiment of my own I will show how important attachment is to human development.
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An article primarily includes the following sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Before writing the introduction, the main steps, the heading and the familiarity level of the readers should be considered. Writing should begin when the experimental system and the equipment are available. The introduction section comprises the first portion of the manuscript, and it should be written using the simple present tense. Additionally, abbreviations and explanations are included in this section. The main goal of the introduction is to convey basic information to the readers without obligating them to investigate previous publications and to provide clues as to the results of the present study. To do this, the subject of the article should be thoroughly reviewed, and the aim of the study should be clearly stated immediately after discussing the basic references. In this review, we aim to convey the principles of writing the introduction section of a manuscript to residents and young investigators who have just begun to write a manuscript.
When entering a gate of a magnificent city we can make a prediction about the splendor, pomposity, history, and civilization we will encounter in the city. Occasionally, gates do not give even a glimpse of the city, and it can mislead the visitors about inner sections of the city. Introduction sections of the articles are like gates of a city. It is a presentation aiming at introducing itself to the readers, and attracting their attention. Attractiveness, clarity, piquancy, and analytical capacity of the presentation will urge the reader to read the subsequent sections of the article. On the other hand as is understood from the motto of antique Greek poet Euripides “a bad beginning makes a bad ending”, ‘Introduction’ section of a scientific article is important in that it can reveal the conclusion of the article. [ 1 ]
It is useful to analyze the issues to be considered in the ‘Introduction’ section under 3 headings. Firstly, information should be provided about the general topic of the article in the light of the current literature which paves the way for the disclosure of the objective of the manuscript. Then the specific subject matter, and the issue to be focused on should be dealt with, the problem should be brought forth, and fundamental references related to the topic should be discussed. Finally, our recommendations for solution should be described, in other words our aim should be communicated. When these steps are followed in that order, the reader can track the problem, and its solution from his/her own perspective under the light of current literature. Otherwise, even a perfect study presented in a non-systematized, confused design will lose the chance of reading. Indeed inadequate information, inability to clarify the problem, and sometimes concealing the solution will keep the reader who has a desire to attain new information away from reading the manuscript. [ 1 – 3 ]
First of all, explanation of the topic in the light of the current literature should be made in clear, and precise terms as if the reader is completely ignorant of the subject. In this section, establishment of a warm rapport between the reader, and the manuscript is aimed. Since frantic plunging into the problem or the solution will push the reader into the dilemma of either screening the literature about the subject matter or refraining from reading the article. Updated, and robust information should be presented in the ‘Introduction’ section.
Then main topic of our manuscript, and the encountered problem should be analyzed in the light of the current literature following a short instance of brain exercise. At this point the problems should be reduced to one issue as far as possible. Of course, there might be more than one problem, however this new issue, and its solution should be the subject matter of another article. Problems should be expressed clearly. If targets are more numerous, and complex, solutions will be more than one, and confusing.
Finally, the last paragraphs of the ‘Introduction’ section should include the solution in which we will describe the information we generated, and related data. Our sentences which arouse curiosity in the readers should not be left unanswered. The reader who thinks to obtain the most effective information in no time while reading a scientific article should not be smothered with mysterious sentences, and word plays, and the readers should not be left alone to arrive at a conclusion by themselves. If we have contrary expectations, then we might write an article which won’t have any reader. A clearly expressed or recommended solutions to an explicitly revealed problem is also very important for the integrity of the ‘Introduction’ section. [ 1 – 5 ]
We can summarize our arguments with the following example ( Figure 1 ). The introduction section of the exemplary article is written in simple present tense which includes abbreviations, acronyms, and their explanations. Based on our statements above we can divide the introduction section into 3 parts. In the first paragraph, miniaturization, and evolvement of pediatric endourological instruments, and competitions among PNL, ESWL, and URS in the treatment of urinary system stone disease are described, in other words the background is prepared. In the second paragraph, a newly defined system which facilitates intrarenal access in PNL procedure has been described. Besides basic references related to the subject matter have been given, and their outcomes have been indicated. In other words, fundamental references concerning main subject have been discussed. In the last paragraph the aim of the researchers to investigate the outcomes, and safety of the application of this new method in the light of current information has been indicated.
An exemplary introduction section of an article
Apart from the abovementioned information about the introduction section of a scientific article we will summarize a few major issues in brief headings
Important points which one should take heed of:
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An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [1].
I once had a professor tell a class that he sifted through our pile of essays, glancing at the titles and introductions, looking for something that grabbed his attention. Everything else went to the bottom of the pile to be read last, when he was tired and probably grumpy from all the marking. Don’t get put at the bottom of the pile, he said. Anonymous
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1 what is the importance of an introduction.
An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [ 1 ].
It provides the flavour of the article and many authors have used phrases to describe it for example—'like a gate of the city’ [ 2 ], ‘the beginning is half of the whole’ [ 3 ], ‘an introduction is not just wrestling with words to fit the facts, but it also strongly modulated by perception of the anticipated reactions of peer colleagues’, [ 4 ] and ‘an introduction is like the trailer to a movie’. A good introduction helps captivate the reader early.
A good introduction will ‘sell’ an article to a journal editor, reviewer, and finally to a reader [ 3 ]. It should contain the following information [ 5 , 6 ]:
The known—The background scientific data
The unknown—Gaps in the current knowledge
Research hypothesis or question
Methodologies used for the study
The known consist of citations from a review of the literature whereas the unknown is the new work to be undertaken. This part should address how your work is the required missing piece of the puzzle.
The Problem-solving model
First described by Swales et al. in 1979, in this model the writer should identify the ‘problem’ in the research, address the ‘solution’ and also write about ‘the criteria for evaluating the problem’ [ 7 , 8 ].
The CARS model that stands for C reating A R esearch S pace [ 9 , 10 ].
The two important components of this model are:
Establishing a territory (situation)
Establishing a niche (problem)
Occupying a niche (the solution)
In this popular model, one can add a fourth point, i.e., a conclusion [ 10 ].
This includes: [ 9 ]
Stating the general topic and providing some background about it.
Providing a brief and relevant review of the literature related to the topic.
Adding a paragraph on the scope of the topic including the need for your study.
Establishing a niche includes:
Stating the importance of the problem.
Outlining the current situation regarding the problem citing both global and national data.
Evaluating the current situation (advantages/ disadvantages).
Identifying the gaps.
Emphasizing the importance of the proposed research and how the gaps will be addressed.
Stating the research problem/ questions.
Stating the hypotheses briefly.
Figure 17.1 depicts how the introduction needs to be written. A scientific paper should have an introduction in the form of an inverted pyramid. The writer should start with the general information about the topic and subsequently narrow it down to the specific topic-related introduction.
Flow of ideas from the general to the specific
This is the third portion of the introduction and defines the rationale of the research and states the research question. If this is missing the reviewers will not understand the logic for publication and is a common reason for rejection [ 11 , 12 ]. An example of this is given below:
Till date, no study has been done to see the effectiveness of a mesh alone or the effectiveness of double suturing along with a mesh in the closure of an umbilical hernia regarding the incidence of failure. So, the present study is aimed at comparing the effectiveness of a mesh alone versus the double suturing technique along with a mesh.
For a project protocol, the introduction should be about 1–2 pages long and for a thesis it should be 3–5 pages in a double-spaced typed setting. For a scientific paper it should be less than 10–15% of the total length of the manuscript [ 13 , 14 ].
All sections in a scientific manuscript except the conclusion should contain references. It has been suggested that an introduction should have four or five or at the most one-third of the references in the whole paper [ 15 ].
An introduction paves the way forward for the subsequent sections of the article. Frequently well-planned studies are rejected by journals during review because of the simple reason that the authors failed to clarify the data in this section to justify the study [ 16 , 17 ]. Thus, the existing gap in knowledge should be clearly brought out in this section (Fig. 17.2 ).
How should the abstract, introduction, and discussion look
The following points are important to consider:
The introduction should be written in simple sentences and in the present tense.
Many of the terms will be introduced in this section for the first time and these will require abbreviations to be used later.
The references in this section should be to papers published in quality journals (e.g., having a high impact factor).
The aims, problems, and hypotheses should be clearly mentioned.
Start with a generalization on the topic and go on to specific information relevant to your research.
An Introduction is a brief account of what the study is about. It should be short, crisp, and complete.
It has to move from a general to a specific research topic and must include the need for the present study.
The Introduction should include data from a literature search, i.e., what is already known about this subject and progress to what we hope to add to this knowledge.
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Samiran Nundy
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Institute for Global Health and Development, The Aga Khan University, South Central Asia, East Africa and United Kingdom, Karachi, Pakistan
Zulfiqar A. Bhutta
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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_17
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If you are writing a psychology paper, it is essential to kick things off with a strong introduction. The introduction to a psychology research paper helps your readers understand why the topic is important and what they need to know before they delve deeper.
Your goal in this section is to introduce the topic to the reader, provide an overview of previous research on the topic, and identify your own hypothesis .
Writing a great introduction can be a great foundation for the rest of your psychology paper. To create a strong intro:
There are some important steps you need to take before you even begin writing your introduction. To know what to write, you need to collect important background information and create a detailed plan.
Search a journal database, PsychInfo or ERIC, to find articles on your subject. Once you have located an article, look at the reference section to locate other studies cited in the article. As you take notes from these articles, be sure to write down where you found the information.
A simple note detailing the author's name, journal, and date of publication can help you keep track of sources and avoid plagiarism.
This is often one of the most boring and onerous steps, so students tend to skip outlining and go straight to writing. Creating an outline might seem tedious, but it can be an enormous time-saver down the road and will make the writing process much easier.
Start by looking over the notes you made during the research process and consider how you want to present all of your ideas and research.
Once you are ready to write your introduction, your first task is to provide a brief description of the research question. What is the experiment or study attempting to demonstrate? What phenomena are you studying? Provide a brief history of your topic and explain how it relates to your current research.
As you are introducing your topic, consider what makes it important. Why should it matter to your reader? The goal of your introduction is not only to let your reader know what your paper is about, but also to justify why it is important for them to learn more.
If your paper tackles a controversial subject and is focused on resolving the issue, it is important to summarize both sides of the controversy in a fair and impartial way. Consider how your paper fits in with the relevant research on the topic.
The introduction of a research paper is designed to grab interest. It should present a compelling look at the research that already exists and explain to readers what questions your own paper will address.
The second task of your introduction is to provide a well-rounded summary of previous research that is relevant to your topic. So, before you begin to write this summary, it is important to research your topic thoroughly.
Finding appropriate sources amid thousands of journal articles can be a daunting task, but there are several steps you can take to simplify your research. If you have completed the initial steps of researching and keeping detailed notes, writing your introduction will be much easier.
It is essential to give the reader a good overview of the historical context of the issue you are writing about, but do not feel like you must provide an exhaustive review of the subject. Focus on hitting the main points, and try to include the most relevant studies.
You might describe previous research findings and then explain how the current study differs or expands upon earlier research.
Once you have summarized the previous research, explain areas where the research is lacking or potentially flawed. What is missing from previous studies on your topic? What research questions have yet to be answered? Your hypothesis should lead to these questions.
At the end of your introduction, offer your hypothesis and describe what you expected to find in your experiment or study.
The introduction should be relatively brief. You want to give your readers an overview of a topic, explain why you are addressing it, and provide your arguments.
Before you delve into the main body of your paper, you need to give your readers some background and present your main argument in the introduction of you paper. You can do this by first explaining what your topic is about, summarizing past research, and then providing your thesis.
Armağan A. How to write an introduction section of a scientific article ? Turk J Urol . 2013;39(Suppl 1):8-9. doi:10.5152/tud.2013.046
Fried T, Foltz C, Lendner M, Vaccaro AR. How to write an effective introduction . Clin Spine Surg . 2019;32(3):111-112. doi:10.1097/BSD.0000000000000714
Jawaid SA, Jawaid M. How to write introduction and discussion . Saudi J Anaesth . 2019;13(Suppl 1):S18-S19. doi:10.4103/sja.SJA_584_18
American Psychological Association. Information Recommended for Inclusion in Manuscripts That Report New Data Collections Regardless of Research Design . Published 2020.
By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."
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Read about three elements to include in your research paper abstract and some tips for making yours stand out
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Writing an abstract might not seem to be at the top of your list of priorities when writing your PhD dissertation , but it’s probably the first thing a reader will see when they encounter your research, so it’s worth putting the effort in to get it right. Here are some ways to make it sing.
An abstract is a concise overview of an extensive piece of research work such as a thesis, dissertation or research paper. Depending on the discipline, it usually contains the purpose of the research, the methodologies employed and the conclusions derived. Abstracts typically range from 500 to 800 words and appear on a separate page after the title page and acknowledgements, but preceding the table of contents. Although it might be tempting to start your thesis by drafting your abstract, I advise postponing until you’ve completed a first draft so that you ensure you cover all topics discussed in your thesis.
Purpose of the study.
Begin your abstract by concisely defining the problems your study addresses or outlining the gaps in knowledge it fills. It should provide the reader with new and useful information regarding your research in the present or past tense. Use verbs such as “test”, “evaluate” and “analyse” to make the research objective specific, measurable, attainable and time-bound. Avoid providing detailed background information and personal opinions at this stage.
In this part of your abstract, explain how you designed and conducted your research and how it addresses your research questions in the past tense. The aim here is to give the reader a prompt insight into your approach, not to evaluate challenges, validity and reliability. Highlight the samples you used and the data collection and analysis tools you employed.
Summarise and highlight the most significant findings that will allow the reader to understand the conclusions in the present or past tense. At the end of your abstract, the reader ought to have a firm grasp of the main argument. If the motive of the research is to resolve a real-world issue, you can include practical implications and suggestions in the findings. Briefly offer future recommendations for further research, if applicable.
When writing your abstract, imagine who might read your research; a curious reader, not necessarily an expert in the field, expects the information to be accessible and not overly complex.
These tips will help to make the abstract writing process smoother, allowing you to make a good first impression on whoever comes across your work when you’re ready to send it out into the world.
Ankitha Shetty is an assistant professor (senior scale) at the department of commerce and a coordinator at the Centre for Doctoral Studies at Manipal Academy of Higher Education, India.
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Although exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first six months of life, research suggests that breastfeeding initiation rates and duration among Indigenous communities differ from this recommendation. Qualitative studies point to a variety of factors influencing infant feeding decisions; however, there has been no collective review of this literature published to date. Therefore, the objective of this scoping review was to identify and summarize the qualitative literature regarding Indigenous infant feeding experiences within Canada, the United States, Australia, and Aotearoa.
Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses- Scoping Reviews and the Joanna Briggs Institute Guidelines, in October 2020, Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Scopus were searched for relevant papers focusing on Indigenous infant feeding experiences. Screening and full-text review was completed by two independent reviewers. A grey literature search was also conducted using country-specific Google searches and targeted website searching. The protocol is registered with the Open Science Framework and published in BMJ Open.
Forty-six papers from the five databases and grey literature searches were included in the final review and extraction. There were 18 papers from Canada, 11 papers in the US, 9 studies in Australia and 8 studies conducted in Aotearoa. We identified the following themes describing infant feeding experiences through qualitative analysis: colonization, culture and traditionality, social perceptions, family, professional influences, environment, cultural safety, survivance, establishing breastfeeding, autonomy, infant feeding knowledge , and milk substitutes , with family and culture having the most influence on infant feeding experiences based on frequency of themes.
This review highlights key influencers of Indigenous caregivers’ infant feeding experiences, which are often situated within complex social and environmental contexts with the role of family and culture as essential in supporting caregivers. There is a need for long-term follow-up studies that partner with communities to support sustainable policy and program changes that support infant and maternal health.
Peer Review reports
Nutritional status is a key aspect of infant health with recommendations for exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, which can also influence and be influenced by maternal health and wellbeing [ 1 , 2 ]. Breastfeeding has several benefits for the health and development of infants, including a reduced risk of ear and respiratory infections, obesity, asthma, skin conditions, childhood leukemia, and gastroenteritis [ 3 , 4 , 5 ]. It also supports bonding between the child and parent with improved intimacy [ 3 ]. Additionally, breastfeeding has several maternal physical and mental health benefits, including a reduced risk of breast and ovarian cancer, depression, and type 2 diabetes due to immunoprotective antibodies in breastmilk [ 3 ]. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months of life and initiation within the first hour after birth; however, less than half of infants 0–6 months old are exclusively breastfed worldwide [ 6 ]. Many countries are not meeting the WHO recommendations, with notable differences between low, middle, and high-income countries [ 2 ]. Differences in breastfeeding initiation rates and duration have been observed between Indigenous and non-Indigenous groups, with 6–10% lower breastfeeding initiation rates and shorter duration for Indigenous peoples [ 7 , 8 , 9 ].
Despite the many benefits of breastfeeding, bottle feeding with milk substitutes is a common form of infant nutrition and its common usage is related to a multi-dimensional set of factors influencing infant feeding decision-making. Breastfeeding is considered a traditional practice within many Indigenous cultures; however, disruptions to traditional lifeways through colonization have influenced intergenerational knowledge sharing, particularly within high-income, settler states like Canada, the US, Australia, and Aotearoa (New Zealand) [ 10 ]. Rollins et al. [ 1 ] summarize factors that influence the global breastfeeding environment including the sociocultural and market contexts, the healthcare system and services, family and community settings, employment, and individual determinants like the mother and infant attributes. However, these core breastfeeding environments for general populations overlook key considerations for Indigenous communities given the unique historical, cultural, and socio-economic contexts specific to Indigenous groups [ 11 ].
Many studies to date have focused on quantitative infant feeding data, incorporating structured questionnaires that have provided some insight into breastfeeding barriers and enablers for Indigenous caregivers [ 7 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. However, these studies are informed by specific research questions and do not capture important nuances that caregivers experience related to infant feeding. Qualitative research can enhance our understanding of phenomena by providing flexible means for participants to engage in the research topic of interest without the constraints of structured instruments, and can even transform the research by highlighting community needs [ 15 , 16 ]. Qualitative research can also have synergy with Indigenous methodologies, supporting the use of qualitative research with Indigenous communities [ 17 ]. Given the value of qualitative inquiry and breastfeeding as traditional practice for many Indigenous cultures, disrupted by colonial influences and the burden of conditions that breastfeeding has been shown to mitigate [ 3 , 5 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 17 ], it is imperative that we consider Indigenous caregiver infant feeding experiences and perspectives to understand what needs exist as defined by communities and caregivers. Therefore, the overall aim of this scoping review was to identify and summarize the qualitative literature on infant nutrition experiences to inform needs as expressed qualitatively by Indigenous caregivers in Canada, the US, Australia, and Aotearoa. These regions are included given the shared colonial influences on Indigenous peoples with overlapping outcomes on health [ 10 , 18 ]. This review will also assess the qualitative methodologies used to understand what can be learned to inform Indigenous infant feeding services, policies, and research gaps.
This scoping review adheres to guidelines from Tricco and colleagues’ [ 19 ] Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses ( PRISMA) extension for scoping reviews , the Joanna Briggs Institute’s Reviewer’s Manual Chap. 11 [ 20 ], as well as Arksey & O’Malley’s [ 21 ] foundational article on scoping studies. The protocol for the review is registered with the Open Science Framework ( https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/J8ZW2 ) and published with BMJ Open [ 22 ].
Works included in this review must have focused on Indigenous populations in Canada, the United States, Australia, and/or Aotearoa. These four countries share commonalities in that they are colonial countries in which Indigenous peoples face inequitable health outcomes [ 10 , 18 , 23 ]. The topic of interest for this review was caregivers’ experiences of infant feeding within one or more of these regions. “Caregivers” refer to individuals in the infants’ immediate familial and social circles who are directly responsible for the regular care of the infant. A broad definition of those involved in caregiving was used, recognizing that within many Indigenous communities, traditional adoption practices occur, or biological parents may not be the primary caregivers in part related to complex socio-ecological challenges. The experiences of healthcare professionals were not included as they were not considered “caregivers” by this definition. Works that discussed breastfeeding, as well as alternative forms of infant feeding, such as formula and cow’s milk, were included. Works that only focused on the introduction of solid foods were excluded. To capture caregivers’ experiences of infant feeding, qualitative and mixed-method studies that discussed experiences, perspectives, and/or practices as described by caregivers were included. Studies that used exclusively quantitative methods or that only described an outsider perspective (e.g. health professional) were excluded. Peer-reviewed journal articles and grey literature were included if they met the above criteria, were published in the English language, and were published after 1969 [ 22 ].
Various types of grey literature such as government documents, dissertations, and research reports by academic and non-academic institutions, including Indigenous organizations, were included. Media reports (including videos, news, and blogs) were excluded from the grey literature as they did not follow a research design with results that could be considered alongside the studies included in the review, hindering our ability to compare and critically analyze the results. Similarly, publications that consisted of only an abstract were excluded from both grey and database publications during full-text review as not enough information was present for analysis.
The search strategy was created with guidance from a research librarian at the Gerstein Science Information Centre, University of Toronto. The complete search strategy can be found as supplementary material in our published protocol [ 22 ]. Search terms primarily included broad terminology for Indigenous peoples (e.g. Native American) rather than specific Nation names (e.g. Ojibwe) as this would have significantly extended the search term list while not resulting in additional sources given how sources are indexed within Library systems. A database and grey literature search were conducted for this scoping review, completed independently from one another until final data extraction when the data were combined for analysis. For both searches, the reviewers followed a step-by-step process of title and abstract screening, followed by full-text screening, and then data extraction.
The database search planning and calibration occurred in August and September of 2020, and all data were exported in English on October 20, 21, and 22 of 2020. Exportation occurred over three days given feasibility of exporting the high number of citations and time capacity of the reviewers. A total of 16734 relevant sources available in the following databases were included: Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Scopus. These databases were selected to ensure a broad range of research given the multidisciplinary nature of research on this topic. The grey literature search consisted of a targeted search of a variety of Indigenous focused websites specific to the four countries and a thorough Google search with each of the country-specific Google versions (Google.com.au, Google.co.nz, Google.ca, and Google.com) where the first 10 pages of results were reviewed (Supplementary File 1 ). Lastly, Indigenous Studies Portal (I-Portal) was searched as part of the grey literature as this database uses a different indexing system than other research databases. The Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health (CADTH)’s “Grey Matters” checklist [ 24 ] was used in the planning and tracking of grey literature searches and findings.
The results of the database search including 16734 citations were uploaded to Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation Ltd., Melbourne, Australia), a data management platform for systematic and scoping reviews, where 3928 duplicates were automatically removed. The 284 results of the grey literature search were recorded on Google Sheets (Alphabet Inc. California, USA) and 146 duplicates were manually removed by the reviewers. Due to the large number of results retrieved in the database and grey literature search, a hand-search of reference lists was not conducted.
A list of key words developed by HM were searched on each site and can be found in Supplementary File 1 . The grey literature search was completed by HM, CC, and HS with all reviewers assigned to search a Country-specific Google database for one of the included countries. Using a template created by Stapleton [ 25 ] at the University of Waterloo based on methods described by Godin et al. [ 26 ], the reviewers kept track of which search terms were searched on the websites, the number of results retrieved, and the number of items screened and saved for further full-text analysis. If a website did not have a search bar, relevant tabs were examined for research, resources, and other publications. I-Portal was originally searched on August 15th, 2021 (yielding 10 results), however the search was revised to remove Indigenous search terms as the database was already Indigenous-specific. The search was repeated on August 18th, 2021, and yielded 77 additional results. The grey literature search was completed between May 25, 2021 – August 18, 2021. No search limitations or filters were used for the grey literature search or the database search.
The database abstract screening was initially completed by HM and CC starting in October 2020. They were then joined by HS and CL in February 2021. To ensure all reviewers had a shared understanding of the eligibility criteria, two search results were screened together and each reviewer discussed their reasoning for inclusion or exclusion. HM also hosted an introductory meeting to review the screening process using Covidence Software [ 27 ] in detail. All 12806 database results were saved in Covidence [ 27 ].
Abstract and full-text screening was completed in Covidence by two independent reviewers. Any conflicts at the screening stage were resolved by AH after all the results had been screened by two reviewers. Full-text screening was completed by HM, AH, and CC, and when conflicts arose, the reviewers met to discuss the difference in opinion until a consensus was reached. A third reviewer joined to offer impartial opinions for full-text conflicts.
Grey literature results were not imported to Covidence. Instead, the team used Google Sheets to organize the publications. Similar to the database review process, each study was screened by two independent reviewers and conflicts were resolved by a third party and discussed for consensus. Full-text review of the grey literature was completed by HM, AH, CC, and HS.
HM compiled a list of variables to extract (Supplementary File 2 ), and the data extraction was completed by HM, AH, and CC in Covidence for database results and Google Sheets for the grey literature. The extraction template was reviewed and tested by all three reviewers using the same two articles. Discussion about any areas of confusion followed by minor edits to the data extraction template were completed prior to extraction.
Only one reviewer extracted data from most publications, however in circumstances where an article was complex or data extraction was not clear given the format of the article, two reviewers extracted data from the publication. An additional subset of five publications were also randomly double-reviewed by HM to ensure consistency in data extraction. There were an additional two articles that were excluded at this step after review and discussion by AH and HM.
Review findings using the extraction template (supplementary file 2 ) were exported into Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corporation, Washington, USA) and reviewed by HM. HM compiled all data and completed summary figures for variables of interest. The primary analysis consisted of a qualitative review of the included papers’ results and recommendations using a thematic synthesis informed by grounded theory and meta-ethnography, where the included papers are synthesized together, and interpreted using descriptive and analytical themes [ 28 ]. Similar to grounded theory, this process was inductive and identifies themes through comparisons. HM reviewed all extracted data from the excel files, coding for overlapping themes and taking notes throughout. The full-text of the extracted papers were then revisited to identify overall concepts, followed by descriptive themes. Categorization of descriptive themes was completed based on the results and interpretations of included papers. Descriptive themes were refined through additional comparisons between papers. The same analytical process was used for both database and grey literature results, and final analysis involved the integration of themes from the database and grey literature papers. Supplementary file 3 provides a summary table of the included papers in this scoping review.
Of the final sample of 46 articles from which data was extracted (Fig. 1 ), there were studies from each of the four countries, with the most studies (39%) published from Canada. In addition, this qualitative literature on infant feeding included several Indigenous groups within the four countries. The studies retained in this review included authors who identified as either Indigenous or non-Indigenous, and several did not mention positionality (Fig. 2 ). 13% more grey literature studies discussed positionality and had Indigenous sole authorship compared to the database papers. Regarding methodologies utilized, several described Indigenous methodologies and used thematic analysis as an analytic tool (Figs. 3 and 4 ). However, a third of the studies did not describe their theoretical foundations for the qualitative inquiry. Over 60% of the studies were published in the fields of public health and/or nursing as per the authors stated fields of study and/or the Journal’s field, and although there were studies published from 1984 to 2019, 50% of the retained papers were published after 2010.
PRISMA flow diagram for studies identified, screened, and included in this review from both database and grey literature searches. Note that records not retrived are those in which the full-text was not accessible. This diagram was created from the PRISMA 2020 statement [ 29 ]
Author positionality as described in the retained papers
Summary of analytic tools used in the retained studies
Summary of theoretical foundations informing the retained studies’ methodologies
Analysis revealed a variety of important themes that aligned with Indigenous and public health perspectives on health, including the socioecological model. There were twelve final overarching themes including colonization, social perceptions, family, professional influences, culture and traditionality , environment (i.e. built environment) , autonomy, survivance, infant feeding knowledge, cultural safety , milk substitutes , and establishing breastfeeding with evidence of connections among these themes. These themes are shown in Fig. 5 in a circular pattern where the themes intersect with the infant and caregiver represented at the centre. This model is conceptually aligned with that of Dodgson et al. [ 30 ], who considered the “contextual influences within the social structures of family and community, Ojibwe culture, and mainstream culture.”
Scoping review research model of themes
The twelve final themes are shown as the main influences on infant feeding experiences. The themes are arranged in a circular pattern with the infant and caregiver represented at the centre, emphasizing the connection between all of the themes
There were 14 papers that discussed colonization of Indigenous peoples as a key factor influencing infant feeding decisions and experiences (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Colonization has meant the dispossession of land and limited access to culturally safe healthcare, malnutrition, and loss of language through residential schools, loss of culture and traditional knowledge through assimilation and separation of families, disrupting breastfeeding practices and limiting income for infant formula. Eni et al. [ 36 ] described the policies leading to evacuation from communities to tertiary-care hospitals for birthing as the medicalization of birthing practices, which creates various challenges for First Nations women in Canada. One participant also shared about the impacts of intergenerational trauma related to colonization on breastfeeding, ‘‘You can’t teach about breastfeeding technique and think things will change. It’s the spirit that’s been affected, our experience with trauma. Our women need to relearn how to bond with their children.’’.
A qualitative study with Aboriginal Australian first-time mothers noted the disruptions to breastfeeding practices over time, providing a historical chart detailing how infant feeding practices changed as a result of colonial influences [ 38 ]. Brittany Luby [ 39 ] described how hydroelectric flooding from 1900 to 1975 in Northwestern Ontario reduced breastfeeding practices for Anishinabek mothers and their infants. Although not all studies specifically discussed history and colonization, those that considered the broader historical context highlighted how important this issue is in understanding the factors that lead to infant feeding decisions, particularly those that do not align with breastfeeding as a traditional feeding practice.
Frequency of identified themes in the database papers and the grey literature
Culture , including traditionality, was the second most described theme throughout all papers, identified both directly and indirectly in 31 papers (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 , 35 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. The Navajo Infant Feeding Project focused on cultural beliefs influencing infant feeding practices within three Navajo communities in the United States [ 48 ] and emphasized breastfeeding’s significance for nutritional, physical, and psychological health where mothers not only pass along physical health benefits, but also their wellbeing to their children. The Baby Teeth Talk Study in Cree communities in Northern Manitoba, Canada, has identified breastfeeding as a cultural intervention for the prevention of early childhood caries [ 52 ]. Several studies included a variety of generations in data collection, contributing to rich discussion of how breastfeeding rates and connection to traditionality has changed in some communities [ 48 , 57 , 64 , 65 ]. For example, grandmothers living on the Fort Peck Reservation in Montana, US, were interviewed about their perspectives on infant feeding [ 65 ]. In one of the ethnographic studies, there was a specific focus on the Ojibwe culture relating to infant feeding practices from the perspective of mothers, professionals who were also community members, and Elders [ 35 ]. This study emphasized the holistic and collective worldview of the community, influencing women’s roles within the family and how teachings were passed on from generation to generation [ 35 ]. This was considered to be important in influencing effective and culturally safe breastfeeding promotion. Within the Northwest Territories, Canada, Moffitt and Dickinson [ 53 ] supported breastfeeding knowledge translation tools for Tłı̨chǫ women with one of the themes focused on factors that “pull to breastfeeding,” including breastfeeding as a traditional feeding method. In general, Indigenous communities described breastfeeding as a cultural practice; however, how this is supported and the traditional knowledge surrounding this practice may differ from community to community. Therefore, health providers must be aware of community-specific protocols and support these within programs and recommendations.
Societal influences are often considered alongside cultural perspectives of infant feeding; therefore, this theme was also commonly discussed in the papers retained in this scoping review (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 40 , 42 , 49 , 50 , 52 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ]. In New South Wales, Australia, Aboriginal mothers and key informants noted the need for “a safe place to feed,” including concerns about the social acceptability to breastfeed in public [ 32 ]. Broader social “norms” are also discussed as influencing maternal behavior [ 68 ], and respondents in some studies expressed concern about judgements from others [ 32 , 36 ]. Tapera et al. [ 40 ] described concerns about social pressures and a lack of support with one grandparent sharing, “well here in New Zealand, I know we have a problem with this [breast-feeding], especially when mothers go out and they breast-feed their babies in public. There’s a lot of people that moan and groan about this.” Similarly, regarding social norms, a grandmother living in the US shared,
“a long time ago that, it [breastfeeding] was acceptable and nobody had any qualms about it but today, I mean you read continually about, people, mother’s tryin’ ta breastfeed and they’re being chased out a places or stores or people are rude about it […]. Society’s changed, you know, it’s […] society, has come to the point where it’s […] trying to tell us what’s the right way ta live what’s the right way ta raise our kids” [ 65 ].
Dodgson et al. [ 30 ] described how in an Ojibwe community in Minnesota, US, participants noted the dominant societal influences in contrast to community traditions, with women making an effort to engage in traditional practices. The sexualization of breasts in mainstream society sometimes influenced Indigenous mothers’ infant feeding experiences [ 36 ], although Ojibwe caregivers in Minnesota attributed shyness with breastfeeding to traditional value opposed to sexualization of breasts [ 30 ]. Eni et al. [ 36 ] included sexual objectification of the feminine body as a subtheme in their study, describing how this social perception damages maternal mental health, creating a barrier to breastfeeding. While shifting social norms is a significant challenge, breastfeeding supports can address concerns about the sexual objectification of breasts by creating safe spaces for parents to talk about the challenges and ensure that parents have access to mental health resources.
Dodgson et al. [ 30 ] described family as a pattern that influences breastfeeding intersecting with the social structures of the community, culture, and the broader society. There were 33 other papers that described the influence of family on infant feeding practices making this the most discussed theme (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. Native American mothers living in six communities highlighted the importance of family as a key theme [ 47 ]. One mother shared, “For me, it’s my mom definitely [whose advice is most important] because she has had three kids and I lived with her or near her for all of my kids. So I’ve always gone to her first for advice.” This was echoed by many other participants with a paraprofessional adding, “family [advice is most important], because they are around their family most. And they always hear from their aunties, or from grandma, baby’s fussing, baby must be hungry, baby needs this and baby needs that.” The Baby Basket Program in Cape York, Australia identified that empowering families was the foundation of the program to ensure that mothers and their partners were equipped for the arrival of their babies [ 50 ]. Family often plays an integral role in supporting mothers in infant feeding practices. Bauer and Wright [ 45 ] note that even when mothers don’t have other supports or conditions in place to support breastfeeding, they may still choose to breastfeed if their family is supportive. However, when this support is lacking, mothers find it challenging to breastfeed [ 31 , 36 ]. Some studies identified the significance of family in the study design, integrating family caregiver perspectives in data collection [ 64 , 65 ]. Therefore, health programs and research studies should consider the role and experience of non-primary caregivers within family networks for infant and maternal health and nutrition.
This theme represents the influence of formal systems including healthcare professionals, health and social programs, child services, and the legal system. In total, there were 26 papers that referenced professional influences on infant feeding experiences (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 38 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 54 , 58 , 59 , 61 , 62 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 ]. Some studies incorporate health workers as participants in data collection [ 47 , 50 , 65 ]. One health paraprofessional shares about some of the pressures experienced by mothers to formula feed, “sometimes hospitals and doctors want to push formula in bottles on moms [ 47 ].” One of the main themes in a study with Sioux and Assiniboine Nations in the US was the ‘ Overburdened Healthcare System’ , describing a lack of resources and infrastructure to support breastfeeding, including a subtheme of mistrust in the healthcare system due to previous negative experiences such as forced sterilization of Indigenous women [ 65 ]. However, some caregivers also expressed positive healthcare supports, “when I was at home, [clinic midwife] and [lactation consultant made home visits] … they encouraged me … And then it started getting a little bit better, but it was still a bit hard. Now he feeds pretty all right [ 73 ].” Professional influences on infant feeding are nuanced and may differ significantly within various contexts and individuals; therefore, tailored interventions are needed.
This theme represents the external variables within the built environment that influence decision making including work, school, remoteness, and cost of formula. Eighteen papers addressed this theme [ 30 , 31 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 53 , 58 , 59 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 70 , 71 , 72 ]. Wright et al. [ 74 ] specifically considered the challenge of breastfeeding with maternal employment among the Navajo population in the US. In Bauer and Wright’s [ 45 ] study that explored infant feeding decision models, they identified that work and school are part of the decision-making process on whether to breastfeeding or to use formula, but even when these environmental challenges are present they can be further influenced by other factors, like family . For example, a mother may choose to breastfeed and use a breast pump to navigate work/school schedules, but family members may recommend that they can incorporate formula; decision-making is not only about the main caregiver’s desires but can involve various decision-makers.
This theme describes parents’ freedom to make infant feeding decisions that fit for them and their priorities. Maternal desire to breast- or bottle-feed was discussed in select papers in this review [ 45 , 51 ]. In addition, other papers describe parents’ freedom to do activities outside of infant feeding in the early months of baby’s life with discussion of time required to breastfeed or prepare bottles for feeding [ 31 , 58 , 72 , 74 ]. A key informant in a study with an Aboriginal community in Northern New South Wales, Australia, shares, “they want to breastfeed, but then it comes down to when they want to go out, or keep up with their man [ 32 ].” Some parents report that they experienced judgements from others or feel forced into making a specific decision on infant feeding method, highlighting a desire to have support and freedom to make their own decisions [ 36 , 56 ].
Several studies emphasize the importance of knowledge on infant feeding experiences, highlighting the value of infant feeding education, both within the overall healthcare system and from traditional teachings [ 30 , 32 , 35 , 40 , 42 , 43 , 47 , 52 , 57 , 58 , 62 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 ]. Within the theme of addressing feeding challenges in one study [ 66 ], a caregiver shared how knowledge helped her to work through a challenge,
“He did start fussing at about 6 weeks and that was kind of hard because I thought, ‘No, I have got this perfect now, and he has started to muck up’. But then I read, because I had those booklets and I read that sometimes they — at a certain point — they get a bit fussy and you just have to work through it. [Ml7]” [ 66 ].
Traditional breastfeeding knowledge is important for many communities; one Anishinaabe community knowledge keeper shared that “breast milk is a gift and a medicine a mother gives her child” [ 35 ]. This study also discusses feeding patterns as shared by Elders and traditional teachers. Traditional knowledge considers holistic perspectives of health where caregivers are also focused on the baby’s spiritual wellbeing [ 48 , 56 ].
Bottle feeding (formula or canned milk) and solid foods are described in several papers as alternatives or complements to breastfeeding [ 31 , 33 , 34 , 37 , 39 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 58 , 66 , 67 , 74 , 75 ]. In Neander and Morse’s [ 37 ] study with a Cree community in Alberta, Canada, bottle feedings were offered particularly when mothers felt that they were not producing adequate milk supply to meet the baby’s nutritional needs. Insufficient milk supply is echoed as a concern in several other papers resulting in complementary bottle feeding or weaning [ 48 , 51 , 56 , 66 , 67 ]. A Māori father shares,
“about the second week, baby just wanted more food. She (partner) would end her day and baby was just hungry. We had to [give her] the bottle and then she would be finally satisfied. It wasn’t that she made a choice. Baby was actually demanding more and more and she couldn’t produce it. (First-time father, mid 20’s) [ 56 ].”
This theme particularly overlaps with autonomy as parents balance infant feeding decisions with breastmilk supply, work, school, and other personal commitments.
Indigenous caregivers interact with a variety of health services postnatally; however, there is a need to address cultural safety within the healthcare system. Twelve retained papers highlighted this theme either directly as one of their themes or as part of another theme (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 44 , 47 , 50 , 64 , 66 , 67 , 69 , 71 , 73 , 74 ]. One health worker in Victoria, Australia, shared,
“I can’t say often enough or long enough, loud enough the ideal for children 0–8 is to have access to maternal and child health. You might say ‘oh yes, they’ve got access to mainstream and they’re culturally going to put up a few Indigenous prints in their rooms’ It’s not the same. Our families are telling us with their feet it’s not the same.”
Mothers expressed a desire for more traditional infant feeding knowledge within services and culturally relevant supports [ 47 , 64 ]. A study that focused on a baby basket program to support families in a Murri (Local Australian Aboriginal Group) Way identified how important culturally safe language and relationships are for families,
“…the nurse is also learning what the best way is to approach a family and what the wording has to be, what the languaging is around things, what the traditional words are for Indigenous language and are appropriate for use in certain circumstances” [ 50 ].
Indigenous caregivers experience a variety of hardships; however, through resistance and survival, they practice cultural revitalization [ 76 ]. This theme is discussed in 15 papers and is often described through a lens of maternal mental health (Fig. 6 ) [ 30 , 31 , 33 , 43 , 53 , 54 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 63 , 64 , 66 , 68 , 36 , 74 ]. Some parents express feelings of guilt for the challenges they encounter, which can further contribute to negative emotions [ 58 ]. Maternal mental and emotional health can impact infant feeding experiences,
“…sometimes people’s psychological health, mental health is more of a risk factor, you know if you’re not sleeping and you’re bordering on depression and you’re not coping well and you can’t get the baby to latch and you’re constantly feeling like a failure and you can’t get out of that rut, is it worth it?…People have to decide that for themselves. (Key Informant #5)” [ 33 ].
A grandmother in the Northwest Territories of Canada noted the disembodiment caused by residential schools as expressed as a disconnection between physical experiences and relationships,
“You know in those days, I mean residential school. In those days, they never did talk about their body parts because I think they were too ashamed [of your body] to say to your kids. I never did hear it [breastfeeding] from my sisters or nobody in the family. They were so private (L151-156)” [ 57 ].
Traumatic experiences, like residential schools, can have a lasting impact on how caregivers navigate motherhood and infant feeding, and the support they receive from family members.
There are several practical challenges that mothers encounter while breastfeeding like pain, latching issues, and low milk supply, discussed in 11 of the studies (Fig. 6 ) [ 48 , 51 , 54 , 56 , 58 , 61 , 66 , 68 , 71 , 72 ]. A mother shared,
“He wouldn’t latch on all the time, like, the nurses and stuff tried to help me but then it would be all frustrating…. He didn’t really know what to do. He tried and then they gave him formula. He really loved it. [MI5]” [ 66 ].
Although these challenges are most discussed at the beginning of breastfeeding, sometimes concerns arise when babies are older.
“Yeah it was 8 or 9 months after she was born. After a while there was too much pressure on me. She was getting up all through the night and she would eat and eat and eat and not get full…” [ 33 ].
Overall, many caregivers reported that breastfeeding is difficult; therefore, supports that consider the variety of challenges that can arise are needed.
The studies included in this review were published over three decades starting in 1984 until 2019 and were completed with various Indigenous communities in four countries. We anticipated that earlier work would demonstrate markedly different infant feeding recommendations than more recent research; however, this was not necessarily the case. For example, cultural safety is a more recent discussion within the health literature; however, although we see some discussion of this in more recent studies, studies in the 80’s and 90’s also highlight the importance of incorporating traditional teaching and consulting community members [ 37 , 48 ]. Therefore, supporting Indigenous self-determination where health professionals provide culturally appropriate care is essential.
In addition to topics related to cultural safety, various studies highlight a need for community-driven and local knowledge to inform programs and policies related to infant nutrition [ 31 , 47 , 57 , 64 , 75 ]. Several studies also focus on infant feeding specific programs and behavioral changes in their recommendations [ 47 , 50 , 65 ]; however, many of these studies also highlight the need to expand beyond the individual’s role in decision making and address the broader social and environmental factors such as the workplace, healthcare infrastructure, social perceptions, among others, that influence infant feeding decisions. For example, Eni et al. [ 36 ] note that there are a complexity of factors resulting in various breastfeeding environments. These structural, social and cultural contexts are discussed throughout several of the grey literature texts as well [ 32 , 33 ]. It is also important to note that in the most recently published database paper, maternal mental health is directly addressed in the recommendations and this is the only paper with this focus for next steps [ 65 ]. Interventions that target socio-ecological factors based on the included papers’ recommendations for infant feeding are summarized in Fig. 7 .
(Adapted from Rollins et al. 2016)
The components of Indigenous infant feeding environments informed by community-based interventions
This scoping review presents and summarizes the findings reporting Indigenous infant feeding experiences within the qualitative literature in Canada, the US, Australia, and Aotearoa. Twelve themes were identified which summarize the literature including culture and traditionality , colonization, family, environment, social perceptions, professional influences, milk substitutes, breastfeeding initiation, cultural safety, survivance, infant feeding knowledge, and autonomy. The most prevalent themes discussed by caregivers and researchers in the included papers were family and culture/traditionality . The frequency of these two themes highlight the significant impact of family and culture/traditionality on infant nutrition decision-making for Indigenous caregivers and overlaps with components of the socio-ecological model [ 77 ]. This focus on family and culture/traditionality also emphasizes the importance of familial relationships and a collective mentality within traditional life ways for many Indigenous communities in these regions on infant nutrition and care practices.
In their informative global breastfeeding paper, Rollins and colleagues’ [ 1 ] conceptualize the components that contribute to the breastfeeding environment at multiple levels, overlapping with the social determinants of health. In this review, we observed that caregivers report similar components of the breastfeeding environment; however, these components seem to be described collectively, rather than as separate contexts. This is evident in the recommendations proposed by authors with a large focus on local and community-specific leadership, multidisciplinary interventions, and cultural safety in response to historical traumas, particularly within the healthcare system (Fig. 7 ). This aligns with Indigenous epistemology with an emphasis on the collective and interconnectedness of all things where power is manifested together, not over one another, and is based in local land-based knowledge [ 78 , 79 ].
A primary recommendation echoed within many of these studies was the need for community engagement in program and policy development [ 34 , 47 , 50 , 64 ]. This may need to be expanded upon to support Indigenous self-determination of policy and programs related to infant feeding where community members are not only engaged but leading the way forward in maternal and infant health. It is important to note that there have been changes over time in how these recommendations and perspectives are discussed and the role of the health professional, particularly related to cultural safety. For example, although similar concepts are discussed in Neander and Morse’s paper published in 1989, ‘cultural safety’ is not used as the terminology, which has been expanded upon in recent years by Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars [ 37 , 80 , 81 ].
Related to this focus on health professionals and cultural safety, it’s important to distinguish that in many of the positive experiences expressed by participants in the studies, these interactions seemed to be primarily with professionals interacting closely with families. For example, midwives, who make home visits, were often included as part of positive experiences. In the literature, there is an emphasis on including practitioners who can build strong relationships with families through home visits and regular community engagement in routine services, which supports cultural safety within the healthcare system [ 82 , 83 ]. Health professional regulatory bodies should consider implementing practice competencies that support professionals to build and navigate strong and ethical relationships with clients/patients. Similarly, healthcare settings that serve Indigenous peoples should consider processes and therefore, facility infrastructures that enable close family-client-professional interactions. An example of this implementation with positive client experiences is the Toronto Birthing Centre, which uses an Indigenous framework and has birthing rooms with space for family [ 84 ].
The studies in this review are written within various fields of research; therefore, there were differences in methodological reporting. Future qualitative work should be thorough in reporting theoretical foundations to provide clarity of how the analyses and overall projects are approached (Fig. 4 ) [ 85 ]. Given the limited studies that report author/researcher positionality (Fig. 2 ), this may be an important addition in forthcoming work as a means of respecting Indigenous and qualitative literature conventions where we recognize that positionality influences ontological origins [ 86 ]. We challenge the academy to recognize that Indigenous and local knowledges are required within Indigenous health research and dissemination practices, while acknowledging our own limitation in this review of a single country authorship team.
This systematic scoping review utilized a rigorous search strategy that limited the possibility of missing relevant publications; however, it was time intensive. PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed with two independent reviewers at each stage, enabling reproducibility of this review. The inclusion of the grey literature is a strength in this study as it captured important papers that were not published in peer-reviewed journals, often from Indigenous authors and communities (many of which were graduate dissertations), which was a priority in this review. A possible limitation is the exclusion of work that only discussed the introduction to solid foods; it is possible that this excluded an important conversation about the differences of introducing solids, like traditional foods from an Indigenous group’s perspective. In addition, the topic of this review is multidisciplinary; therefore, it is possible that although effort was made to include a broad range of research field databases in the search, relevant sources may have been missed.
In conclusion, this scoping review highlights important considerations for infant feeding environments within Indigenous communities with a focus on family and culture. Based on caregiver experiences, Indigenous breastfeeding supports must be community led with a focus on local capacity and traditional teachings. An emphasis on an intergenerational perspective that considers structural and systems approaches including cultural safety within healthcare, addressing maternal mental health, and consideration of sustainability over time is encouraged. Future work should focus on these key areas through strength-based research approaches, grounded in strong relationships and long-term follow-up.
All data generated or analysed during this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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We wish to acknowledge the important contribution of Halima Abubakar in the review process. Given the knowledge specific to Indigenous communities discussed in this scoping review and out of respect for Indigenous research conventions, the authors position themselves within the research to explain the lens from which they approach and understand the research process. TG and AH are non-Indigenous scholars and faculty members based at the University of Toronto, which rests on lands that are the traditional home of the Huron-Wendat, the Seneca, and the Mississaugas of the Credit. All other authors have had student or supporting roles throughout this work and situate themselves as follows: HM is a settler of Scottish, Irish, French, German, and English ancestry residing in Haudenosaunee and Anishinaabe territory, which is part of the dish with one spoon agreement; CC is a settler living in Treaty 7 Territory, with ancestral roots in Germany, Scotland, and the Ukraine; AS is an Odawa Kwe from Wikwemikong, Manitoulin Island, Ontario. Currently, residing in the Tiohtià:ke in Kanien’kéha unceded territory; and HS is living in Treaty 13 territory with ancestral roots in Afghanistan. The remaining co-authors identify as non-Indigenous scholars.
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As the first author, HM conceptualized this work and provided leadership throughout. She participated in every aspect of this review, wrote the initial manuscript, and completed revisions. CC contributed to the screening and full text review of this work. She also contributed to the analysis, and the writing and review of the manuscript. TG supported the protocol of this review and provided guidance throughout analysis. She also contributed to the final manuscript. HS supported screening and full text review. She also provided edits for the manuscript. AS provided feedback on the analysis for this review and contributed to the writing of the manuscript. CL supported screening of papers and provided edits to the final manuscript. AH provided guidance throughout the duration of this review, supported decision making, and provided edits on the manuscript. All authors approved the final manuscript.
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Monteith, H., Checholik, C., Galloway, T. et al. Infant feeding experiences among Indigenous communities in Canada, the United States, Australia, and Aotearoa: a scoping review of the qualitative literature. BMC Public Health 24 , 1583 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19060-1
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January 12, 2024
Philipp Ammon for Quanta Magazine
Sarah Hart has always had an eye for the covert ways mathematics permeates other fields. As a child, she was struck by the ubiquity of the number 3 in her fairy tales. Hart’s mother, a math teacher, encouraged her pattern-seeking, giving her math puzzles to pass the time.
Hart went on to earn a doctorate in group theory in 2000 and later became a professor at Birkbeck, University of London. Hart’s research probed the structure of Coxeter groups, more general versions of structures that catalog the symmetries of polygons and prisms. In 2023, she published Once Upon a Prime , a book about the ways math appears in fiction and poetry. “Since we humans are part of the universe, it is only natural that our forms of creative expression, literature among them, will also manifest an inclination for pattern and structure,” Hart wrote. “Mathematics, then, is the key to an entirely different perspective on literature.”
Since 2020, Hart has been the professor of geometry at Gresham College in London. Gresham has no traditional courses; instead, its professors each deliver several public lectures per year. Hart is the first woman to ever hold the 428-year-old position, which was occupied in the 17th century by Isaac Barrow, famous for teaching another Isaac (Newton). More recently, it was held by Roger Penrose, a mathematician who won the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics. Hart spoke with Quanta about how mathematics and art influence one another. The interview has been condensed and edited for clarity.
These links are less explored and less known than those between math and, say, music. The connections between mathematics and music have been celebrated since at least as far back as the Pythagoreans. However, though there has been writing and academic research about specific books, authors or genres, I hadn’t seen a book for a general audience about the broader connections between mathematics and literature.
Video : Sarah Hart, the professor of geometry at Gresham College, sees symmetry everywhere.
Video: Christopher Webb Young and Emily Buder/ Quanta Magazine ; Photo: Philipp Ammon for Quanta Magazine
There’s a lot of common ground between mathematics and, shall I say, the other arts. In literature, as well as music and art, you don’t ever start with nothing at all. If you’re a poet, you are choosing: Will I have a haiku with its very precise numerical constraints, or will I write a sonnet which has a certain number of lines, a certain rhyme scheme, a certain meter? Even something that doesn’t have a rhyme scheme will have line breaks, a rhythm. There will be constraints that inspire creativity, that help to focus you.
In mathematics, we have the same thing. We have some ground rules. Within that, we can explore, we can play, and we can prove theorems. What mathematics can do for the arts is help find new structures, show what the possibilities are. What would a piece of music look like that doesn’t have a key signature? We can think about the 12 tones and arranging them differently, and here are all the ways you can do that. Here are different color schemes you can devise, here are different forms of poetic meter.
Thousands of years ago in India, poets were trying to think about the possible meters. In Sanskrit poetry, you have long and short syllables. Long is twice as long as short. If you want to work out how many there are that take a length of time of three, you can have short, short, short, or long, short, or short, long. There are three ways to make three. There are five ways to make a length-four phrase. And there are eight ways to make a length-five phrase. This sequence you’re getting is one where every term is the sum of the previous two. You exactly reproduce what we nowadays call the Fibonacci sequence. But this was centuries before Fibonacci.
Hart is interested in the mathematical language found on this Babylonian cuneiform tablet, one of the earliest records of humans doing math.
A quite simple sequence, but it works very, very powerfully, is Eleanor Catton’s book The Luminaries , which came out in 2013. She used the sequence that goes 1,1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16. Every chapter in that book is half the length of the one before. It creates this really fascinating effect, because the pace is picking up, and the characters’ choices are being more constrained. Everything hurtles toward its conclusion. By the end, the chapters are extremely short.
Another example of a slightly more complicated mathematical structure is what’s called orthogonal Latin squares. A Latin square is kind of like a sudoku grid. In this case, it’d be a 10-by-10 grid. Every number appears exactly once in each row and in each column. Orthogonal Latin squares are formed by overlaying two Latin squares so there is a pair of numbers in each space. The grid formed by the first number in each pair is a Latin square, and so is the grid formed by the second number in each pair. Furthermore, in the grid of pairs, no pair appears more than once.
These are very useful in all sorts of ways. You can make error-correcting codes out of them, which are useful for sending messages along kind of noisy channels. But one of the great things about these particular ones, size 10, is that one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, Leonhard Euler, thought they couldn’t exist. It was one of the very few times when he made a mistake; that’s why it was so exciting. A long time after he made this conjecture that these things couldn’t exist for particular sizes, it was refuted, and squares of this size were found in 1959. It was on the cover of Scientific American that year.
Hart has been making mathematical patterns since she was a young child.
Years after that, a French writer, Georges Perec, was looking for a structure to use for his book Life: A User’s Manual . He chose one of these orthogonal Latin squares. He set his book in a Paris apartment block, which had 100 rooms, a 10-by-10 square. Every chapter was in a different room, and every chapter had its unique flavor. He had lists of 10 things — various fabrics, colors, that kind of thing. Every chapter would use a unique combination. It’s a really fascinating way to structure the book.
It’s very variable! I know we prize brevity, but I think sometimes that is taken too far. There are too many papers that don’t have any useful examples.
What we actually prize is an ingenious argument that, because it covers all the cases at once so cleverly, is also brief and elegant. That is not the same as squashing your long argument into a smaller space than it needs by covering the page with arcane sigils that you’ve created to make the notation briefer, but which not only the reader but probably you yourself will have to unpack laboriously again in order to make any sense of what’s going on.
We don’t give enough thought to helpful notation which reminds the reader what is meant. The right notation can absolutely transform a piece of mathematics, and can make space for generalizations as well. Think of the transition, historically, from writing an unknown, its square and its cube with three different letters, and how much more likely, and even possible, it is to start thinking about when you have started writing , and instead.
Hart works from her home office, which sits in her back garden.
There are new things all the time. Fractals were everywhere in the 1990s. On every student dorm room wall, there was a picture of the Mandelbrot set or something like this. Everyone was like, “Oh, this is exciting, fractals.” You get, for example, musicians, composers, who are using fractal sequences in their compositions.
When I was about 16, there were these new things called graphics calculators. Very exciting. And a friend of my mother’s gave me this program that could draw a Mandelbrot set on one of these little graphics calculators. It had about, I don’t know, 200 pixels. You program this thing in, and then I had to leave it for 12 hours. It would plot these 200 points at the end of it. So even mere schoolchildren could engage with this in the late ’80s and early ’90s, and produce these pictures for themselves.
I think I’ve been interested since before I even knew that meant I was mathematical. Like, I just always was making patterns from when I was a tiny, weeny child.
When I was quite little, my favorite toy was some very simple wooden painted tiles. They came in all different colors. I would make them into patterns, and then I’d look at it proudly for a day or so, and then I’d make another one.
Hart with her bird, Coco, at her home in northeast London.
When I got a bit older, I would play with numbers and look at patterns. Mum would be the one I would go to and say, “I’m bored.” And then she’d say, “Well, can you work out what the pattern is of the number of points you need to make a triangle?” or whatever it was. She’d have me rediscover the triangular numbers or something, and I’d be very excited.
My poor mother, the number of amazing inventions that I would go to my mother with. “I’ve developed a whole new way of doing something!” And she’d say, “OK, that’s very nice. But, you know, Descartes thought of that centuries ago.” And then off I’d go; I’d come up with another amazing idea a few days later. “That’s lovely, dear. But the ancient Greeks had that one.”
The moments when you finally understand what the pattern is that you are seeing is always satisfying, as well as when you work out how to complete a proof you’ve been wrestling with. My strongest memories of those feelings of delight, probably because they were the first times I’d felt them, are from the start of my research career. But it’s still a lovely feeling to get that “aha,” when you finally understand what’s going on.
Very early on I was trying to prove something about infinite Coxeter groups. I’d resolved some of the cases, and in looking at the rest I came up with a technique that would work if a specific criterion was satisfied. You can write these relationships in a graph, so I started putting together a collection of the graphs for which my technique could be applied. This was over Christmas one year.
“Doing mathematics feels like discovery,” Hart said. “If we were inventing the mathematics, it surely wouldn’t be so hard to prove things! Sometimes we desperately want something to be true, and it isn’t.”
After a while, my set of pictures started to look like a particular set of graphs that were listed in a book about Coxeter groups that was in my office, and I began to hope that it was this exact set of graphs. If it was, then that would fill in the hole in my proof, and my theorem would be finished. But I couldn’t check for sure until I got back into the university after Christmas — this was before you could just Google everything. I think the anticipation of having to wait to confirm my hunch made it even better when I got to the book and compared my handwritten set of diagrams with the ones in the book, and they were indeed a match.
It probably is, though there are still some resonances.
Doing mathematics feels like discovery. If we were inventing the mathematics, it surely wouldn’t be so hard to prove things! Sometimes we desperately want something to be true, and it isn’t. We can’t avoid the consequences of logic, I suppose.
It all feels like discovery when you are doing it. Some choices mirror what we experience in the real world, like the axioms of geometry we work with, which are chosen because that seems to be roughly what reality is like — though even there, there’s no such thing as a “point” or a “line” (because we can’t draw something that takes up no space, and a line in geometry has no breadth and extends infinitely far).
To some extent, there are parallels to this continuum in literature. Once you define the rules of a sonnet, you will be hard-pressed to write one whose first line ends with “orange” or “chimney.”
But I can’t resist sharing something J.R.R. Tolkien said about writing The Hobbit : “It all began when I was reading exam papers to earn a bit of extra money. … Well, one day I came to a blank page in an exam book and I scribbled on it. ‘In a hole in the ground there lived a hobbit.’ I knew no more about the creatures than that, and it was years before his story grew. I don’t know where the word came from.”
Hobbits — did he create them or discover them?
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