hypothesis of solid waste management

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solid-waste management

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solid-waste management , the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases spread by rodents and insects . The tasks of solid-waste management present complex technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social problems that must be managed and solved.

Historical background

In ancient cities, wastes were thrown onto unpaved streets and roadways, where they were left to accumulate. It was not until 320 bce in Athens that the first known law forbidding this practice was established. At that time a system for waste removal began to evolve in Greece and in the Greek-dominated cities of the eastern Mediterranean. In ancient Rome , property owners were responsible for cleaning the streets fronting their property. But organized waste collection was associated only with state-sponsored events such as parades. Disposal methods were very crude, involving open pits located just outside the city walls. As populations increased, efforts were made to transport waste farther out from the cities.

After the fall of Rome, waste collection and municipal sanitation began a decline that lasted throughout the Middle Ages . Near the end of the 14th century, scavengers were given the task of carting waste to dumps outside city walls. But this was not the case in smaller towns, where most people still threw waste into the streets. It was not until 1714 that every city in England was required to have an official scavenger. Toward the end of the 18th century in America, municipal collection of garbage was begun in Boston , New York City , and Philadelphia . Waste disposal methods were still very crude, however. Garbage collected in Philadelphia, for example, was simply dumped into the Delaware River downstream from the city.

A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of the 19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and sturdier vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in solid-waste treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first refuse incinerator in England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of major American cities were incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest cities were still using primitive disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By mid-century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of solid waste were causing problems of pollution and jeopardizing public health . As a result, sanitary landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to reduce the reliance on waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two categories, hazardous and nonhazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their disposal. Landfills were designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public health and the environment. New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy from the waste and were provided with extensive air pollution control devices to satisfy stringent standards of air quality. Modern solid-waste management plants in most developed countries now emphasize the practice of recycling and waste reduction at the source rather than incineration and land disposal.

Solid-waste characteristics

The sources of solid waste include residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. Certain types of wastes that cause immediate danger to exposed individuals or environments are classified as hazardous; these are discussed in the article hazardous-waste management . All nonhazardous solid waste from a community that requires collection and transport to a processing or disposal site is called refuse or municipal solid waste (MSW). Refuse includes garbage and rubbish. Garbage is mostly decomposable food waste; rubbish is mostly dry material such as glass, paper, cloth, or wood. Garbage is highly putrescible or decomposable, whereas rubbish is not. Trash is rubbish that includes bulky items such as old refrigerators, couches, or large tree stumps. Trash requires special collection and handling.

Construction and demolition (C&D) waste (or debris) is a significant component of total solid waste quantities (about 20 percent in the United States), although it is not considered to be part of the MSW stream. However, because C&D waste is inert and nonhazardous, it is usually disposed of in municipal sanitary landfills.

Another type of solid waste, perhaps the fastest-growing component in many developed countries, is electronic waste , or e-waste, which includes discarded computer equipment, televisions , telephones , and a variety of other electronic devices. Concern over this type of waste is escalating. Lead , mercury , and cadmium are among the materials of concern in electronic devices, and governmental policies may be required to regulate their recycling and disposal.

Solid-waste characteristics vary considerably among communities and nations. American refuse is usually lighter, for example, than European or Japanese refuse. In the United States paper and paperboard products make up close to 40 percent of the total weight of MSW; food waste accounts for less than 10 percent. The rest is a mixture of yard trimmings, wood, glass, metal, plastic, leather, cloth, and other miscellaneous materials. In a loose or uncompacted state, MSW of this type weighs approximately 120 kg per cubic metre (200 pounds per cubic yard). These figures vary with geographic location, economic conditions, season of the year, and many other factors. Waste characteristics from each community must be studied carefully before any treatment or disposal facility is designed and built.

Rates of solid-waste generation vary widely. In the United States , for example, municipal refuse is generated at an average rate of approximately 2 kg (4.5 pounds) per person per day. Japan generates roughly half this amount, yet in Canada the rate is 2.7 kg (almost 6 pounds) per person per day. In some developing countries the average rate can be lower than 0.5 kg (1 pound) per person per day. These data include refuse from commercial, institutional, and industrial as well as residential sources. The actual rates of refuse generation must be carefully determined when a community plans a solid-waste management project.

Most communities require household refuse to be stored in durable, easily cleaned containers with tight-fitting covers in order to minimize rodent or insect infestation and offensive odours. Galvanized metal or plastic containers of about 115-litre (30-gallon) capacity are commonly used, although some communities employ larger containers that can be mechanically lifted and emptied into collection trucks. Plastic bags are frequently used as liners or as disposable containers for curbside collection. Where large quantities of refuse are generated—such as at shopping centres, hotels, or apartment buildings—dumpsters may be used for temporary storage until the waste is collected. Some office and commercial buildings use on-site compactors to reduce the waste volume.

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• Published: 19 August 2023

Household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia

• Worku Adefris 1 ,
• Shimeles Damene   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9690-7111 1 &
• Poshendra Satyal 2  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  516 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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• Development studies
• Environmental studies
• Health humanities

Solid waste segregation plays a critical role in effective waste management; however, the practice remains at a low level in developing countries like Ethiopia. Despite the persistent nature of the problem, there are limited studies to date that can provide sufficient empirical evidence to support appropriate efforts by policy makers and practitioners, particularly in the context of the developing world. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to analyze household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in the urban areas of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. To achieve this objective, data were generated through a household survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations. The collected quantitative data were cleaned, encoded, and statistically analyzed using descriptive statistics in SPSS, while thematic analysis was undertaken to evaluate and describe the qualitative data. The data analysis revealed that only 21.3% of respondents reported frequent solid waste segregation, while about half (45.5%) segregated solid waste rarely. Conversely, a considerable proportion (28.7%) of the respondents reported not segregating solid waste, and the remaining 4.5% of respondents were unsure about the practice. This implies that only one-fifth of the total sampled respondents actually implement solid waste segregation practices at the household level. The chi-square test showed that respondents’ awareness/training ( P  = 0.000) and use of social organizations to discuss waste management ( P  = 0.001) are significantly associated with the practice of solid waste segregation. This highlights the need to focus on awareness-raising efforts among the general public in order to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of individual households and residents toward solid waste segregation practices. Additionally, enabling policies, sufficient infrastructure, and incentive mechanisms can also help enhance wider adoption of the practices.

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Introduction.

Solid waste management is a critical issue in various countries around the world (Nyampundu et al., 2020 ). Factors such as rising population density, urbanization, economic growth, and industrialization often contribute to an increasing volume of solid waste generated (Xiao et al., 2020 ). Globally, the average annual volume of solid waste generated by cities is estimated to be 1.9 billion tons (Kasozi and Von Blottnitz, 2010 ). In sub-Saharan cities, the volume reaches approximately 62 million tons per year (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). Effective solid waste management is crucial in minimizing health and environmental risks associated with waste in urban areas, particularly in the developing world (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ; Amuda et al., 2014 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). However, local authorities, especially in the urban settings of sub-Saharan Africa, face significant challenges in implementing effective and well-organized solid waste management (Firdaus and Ahmad, 2010 ). Rapid urbanization leading to increasing consumption and waste generation (both in terms of quantity and diversity) can deplete resources, cause environmental problems, and have significant social and economic impacts (Rousta and Ekström, 2013 ).

Developed countries have recognized the importance of waste segregation and recycling in improving solid waste management, leading them to implement various approaches such as the 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) policies, legislations, and strategies (Falk and McKeever, 2004 ; Kang and Schoenung, 2005 ; Kumar et al., 2017 ). However, developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, have made limited progress and effort in this regard. A study by Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) highlighted the weak legal reinforcement of waste segregation practices in Tanzania at all stages, including household, collection, and disposal. This is primarily due to a lack of attention, inefficient coordination among various actors, financial constraints, capacity deficiencies, poor infrastructure, and governance issues.

Ethiopia, like many other developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa, has experienced rapid urbanization in recent years. This has resulted in overcrowding and the emergence of informal settlements with poor waste management practices, leading to public health and environmental problems (Nebiyou, 2020 ). Among developing cities, Addis Ababa has faced significant challenges related to poorly managed solid waste operations. The city’s waste generation has increased, but effective solid waste collection and management practices have been lacking (Gelan, 2021 ). These problems are influenced by various factors, including institutional, social, and contextual aspects of waste segregation (Zemena, 2016 ). Despite the persisting issues of solid waste collection and management, particularly regarding the practice of solid waste segregation, there is a limited empirical research in this area for Addis Ababa. This study aims to fill this research gap by assessing the determinants of solid waste segregation practices in Addis Ababa city. In so doing, the study seeks to provide an evidence-based understanding of the issue, support waste management implementation activities, facilitate policy-making, and contribute additional knowledge on the subject. The findings from this study may also offer valuable insights for other developing cities facing similar challenges.

Literature review

Theoretical background.

The evolving concept of waste management is centered around the principles of waste reduction, reuse, and recycling, with the aim of preventing harm to human health and the environment (Pongrácz et al., 2004 ). In addition, effective waste management plays a crucial role in achieving a circular economy, which has become a priority in many developed regions, especially in Europe. The circular economy aims to conserve resources and promote their circularity, leading to a more sustainable and economically viable future.

There is no single universal theory of waste management that can be directly applied as a practical tool for controlling waste-related activities (Pongrácz et al., 2004 ; Pongrácz, 2002 ). According to Pongrácz et al. ( 2004 ), a comprehensive waste management theory should involve a conceptual description of waste management that provides clear definitions of all waste-related concepts. Therefore, the achievement of sustainable waste management relies heavily on defining it properly and proposing an appropriate methodology that organizes the various variables of waste management systems. Pongrácz et al. ( 2004 ) emphasized four fundamental notions that should form the basis of waste management theory: (i) prevention of waste causing harm to human health and the environment; (ii) conservation of resources; (iii) reduction of waste creation by producing useful objects; and (iv) transformation of waste into non-waste materials.

In the context of waste management practices at the city or municipal level, it is important to apply and contextualize these core notions. Municipal solid waste management encompasses a range of tasks and activities, including waste generation control, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal (Rada et al., 2013 ). The overarching objective of these activities is to minimize the negative impacts of waste on human health and the environment, while simultaneously promoting economic development and improving quality of life (USEPA, 2020 ). Effective municipal solid waste management plays a crucial role in achieving efficient resource utilization, enhancing environmental quality and human health, and delivering socioeconomic benefits to local residents.

Solid waste management practices

The total urban waste generation is approximately 2 billion tons per year globally, with a projected per-capita increase of around 20% by the year 2100 (World Bank, 2018 ). As a result, municipal solid waste is considered a significant issue worldwide, as reflected in its inclusion within the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goals 11 (sustainable cities and communities) and 12 (responsible consumption and production). Effective waste management also plays a role in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions by 10–20% (Wilson, 2015 ; Hondo et al., 2020 ) and protecting the environment (Izvercian and Ivascu, 2015 ).

The generation rate and composition of solid waste vary across countries and regions due to socio-economic and cultural factors that influence consumption and production patterns. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the waste generation patterns within national and local contexts, taking into account socio-economic factors. This understanding helps inform waste management planning and actions (Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009 ). Accurate data on solid waste generation and waste management practices are also essential for estimating the necessary human resources, equipment, and materials. Such data helps determine the size and location of waste collection and segregation facilities, design waste disposal systems, and develop overall waste management policies and plans (Ezeah and Roberts, 2012 ).

Solid waste production, particularly in developing countries, is experiencing a significant increase that exceeds the capacities of cities and municipalities in terms of removal and recycling. In these countries, the waste collection rates are 70% lower than the generation rates, and over 50% of the collected waste is disposed of in uncontrolled landfills or open dumpsites, often without adequate recycling measures (UNDESA, 2012 ). Ethiopia serves as an example of the consequences of inadequate solid waste management, with approximately 20–30% of the waste generated in its capital city, Addis Ababa, remaining uncollected (Tilaye and Dijk 2014 ).

Waste segregation practices

In the developed world, solid waste management methods have undergone progressive changes over the years. For instance, in Japan, separate waste collection was introduced in the 1970s and gradually became a common practice among citizens (Africa Data Book, 2019 ). However, in developing countries, waste segregation is not widely practiced (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). Source segregation of waste ensures that it is less contaminated and can be collected and transported for further processing. It also optimizes waste processing and treatment technologies, resulting in a higher quantity of segregated materials that can be recycled and reused, thus reducing the need for virgin materials (Ministry of Indian Urban Development, 2016 ). Similarly, waste segregation during or before collection improves efficiency and reduces costs by minimizing the labor and infrastructure required for segregating mixed wastes. However, in many developing countries, regular solid waste segregation is not practiced by users at the source, making the collection of segregated waste challenging in urban areas (Saja et al., 2021 ). This may be attributed to factors such as a lack of public awareness, limited investment in recycling facilities, and slow adoption of solid waste segregation practices (Abdel-Shafy and Mansour, 2018 ).

According to Kihila et al. ( 2021 ), there is still inadequate implementation of recycling practices in sub-Saharan Africa, primarily due to slow and limited behavioral change, as well as insufficient technologies for reuse, recycling, and recovery. In Ethiopia, the amount of generated waste varies (ranging between 0.25 and 0.49 kilogram per capita per day) by source in urban areas, including households, health institutions, commercial centers, industries, hotels, and street sweepings. Among these sources, households account for 70% of the total volume of solid waste generated in Addis Ababa municipality, with the remaining contributions coming from commercial centers (9%), industries (6%), hotels (3%), health institutions (1%), street sweepings (10%), and other sources (1%). The physical composition of the waste is estimated to include fruit and vegetables (4.2%), paper (2.5%), rubber/plastics (2.9%), woody materials (2.3%), bone (1.1%), textiles (2.4%), metals (0.9%), glass (0.5%), combustibles leaves (15.1%), non-combustible stones (2.5%), and 65.6% different fine materials such as sand, ash, and dust (Gelan, 2021 ). Moreover, solid waste management strategies such as prevention (reduction), reuse, and recycling, along with appropriate solid waste collection, segregation, transportation, and disposal, have been rarely adopted in Ethiopian cities. Source separation of solid waste can promote reuse and recycling practices and encourage informal private sector involvement in these activities (Hirpe and Yeom, 2021 ).

Ethiopia has established a legal framework (Negarit Gazeta Proclamation No. 513/ 2007 ) for solid waste management. Article 11:1 of the proclamation mandates households to segregate non-decomposable solid waste at the source for proper disposal at designated collection sites. However, despite these legal provisions, solid waste segregation has not been widely adopted (Abebe, 2017 ). Therefore, it is crucial to understand the factors influencing and the barriers to the practice of solid waste segregation. This study aimed to address the knowledge gap regarding this issue by analyzing the determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city. The findings of the study can offer empirical insights and evidence-based recommendations for practitioners, policy makers, and the research community in improving solid waste management practices.

Methodology

Description of the study area.

Addis Ababa, the political capital of Ethiopia and its primary commercial and cultural center, is situated geographically between 8°50’ and 9°06’N latitude and 38°39’ to 38°55’E longitude (Fig. 1 ). The city is located at an average altitude of 2400 meters above sea level (a.s.l.), with the highest elevations reaching approximately 3200 meters a.s.l. at mount Entoto in the north. As a result, Addis Ababa is classified as a high-altitude global city. The city spans a total land area of 540 square kilometers and is surrounded by hilly and mountainous terrain to the north and west. Drainage in Addis Ababa is facilitated by small rivers known as Akaki, including small and big Akaki, which originate from different locations and converge near the city’s outskirts. These rivers, namely small and big Akaki, have influenced the city’s landform (Abnet et al., 2017 ) and are vulnerable to pollution from solid and liquid waste.

Map of the study districts showing the location of sample woredas (Pinkish) and sub-cities (Indicolite Green) of Addis Ababa City (Topaz Sand) the capital of Ethiopia (Sodalite Blue) in Africa (Yucca Yellow) (Source of the data/(shape file: Ethiopian Central Statistical Authority, 2007). Source: Developed by the researcher using Ethio-GIS database (2007).

In recent years, waste generation in Addis Ababa has experienced a significant increase, with no signs of reduction, while waste management practices have remained largely traditional. The city has an estimated daily per capita solid waste generation capacity of approximately 0.45 kg (Gelan, 2021 ). Considering the city’s geographical area and population, the average waste generation is estimated to be around 330 kg/m 3 , resulting in a daily solid waste generation of approximately 6019 m 3 . Currently, the municipal solid waste produced in the city is directed to an uncontrolled landfill site called Koshe ( Reppi ). This landfill site has been associated with serious health and environmental risks, including foul odor and the discharge of contaminated leachates into surrounding areas and communities.

The population of Addis Ababa engages in various economic activities, with different sectors contributing to the city’s livelihoods. The major occupations include trade and commerce, which accounts for 22.6% of the population, followed by manufacturing (21.6%), the construction industry (15.3%), public service (13.5%), transport and communication (9.6%), social services—including health, education and other (8.1%), hotel and similar services (6.2%), and 3.1% urban agriculture (3.1%) (Abebe, 2017 ). The city has a considerable capacity of delivering economies of scale due to its concentrated demand, specialization, diversity, innovation, and technology transfer, enabling a broader range of operations (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012 ). However, as consumption and production patterns continue to rise, Addis Ababa faces a significant challenge of generating a high volume of solid waste (Gelan, 2021 ). Despite this, solid waste management, particularly waste segregation practices, lags behind considerably in the city.

Sampling and data collection

In this study, Addis Ababa city was divided into three clusters based on economic activities, and waste generation capacity. The clusters were determined based on dominant activities such as business, residence, office, and other services one sub-city was purposefully selected from each cluster in consultation with the city’s solid waste management office. Out of the 11 sub-cities, the selected sub-cities were Addis Ketema (representing low waste generation capacity), Yeka (representing medium waste generation capacity), and Bole (representing high waste generation capacity). Subsequently, one woreda (district) was randomly chosen from each selected sub-city using a lottery method. The selected woredas were woreda 07, woreda 09, and woreda 01, representing Addis Ketema, Yeka, and Bole sub-cities, respectively. Based on the city administration data for the year 2022, the total number of households in the sampled woredas were as follows: 3576 in woreda 07; 4573 in woreda 09; and 3523 households in woreda 01.

The study utilized a descriptive research approach to examine the pattern of solid waste segregation practices in Addis Ababa. Both primary and secondary data were collected to achieve the research objectives. The primary data was collected from households through a questionnaire survey, focus group discussions, key informant interviews, and field observations. The survey questions had varying properties, with some being dichotomous (requiring a single response) and others allowing for multiple responses. As a result, certain variables in the analysis do not add up to the total sample size (i.e. n  = 245).

Focus group discussions were conducted in each woreda , involving groups of 8–12 participants. The participants mainly consisted of members of waste collection enterprises who were engaged in door-to-door waste collection and segregation at the source (temporary collection site). It is important to note that the segregation at the source primarily focused on separating non-decomposable materials such as plastic bags, bottles, metal scraps, and glass from decomposable materials.

Fifteen interviews were conducted with woreda leaders of waste collectors, officials from the Addis Ababa City Solid Waste Management Agency, and staff from the solid waste cleansing office in the sampled woredas . Before the actual household survey and data collection, a pilot test was conducted to ensure the effectiveness of the questionnaire. Field observations were also conducted, with a specific focus on door-to-door waste collection, segregation, and management practices. These observations were guided by a checklist and documented in a research diary, which served as an important resource for data interpretation and analysis.

In the study, the sample size was determined by Cochran’s formula (Cochran, 1977 ): ( \({{{n}}} = {\textstyle{{{{{Z}}}^2{{{pq}}}} \over {{{{e}}}^2}}}\) ). In this formula, n represents the sample size, z is the selected critical value corresponding to the desired confidence level, p is the estimated proportion of an attribute in the population, q  = 1− p , and e is the desired level of precision, with a 95% confidence level and a maximum variability in a population of 0.5. Accordingly, the survey questionnaire was administered to 245 respondents by a trained enumerator in May 2022 from the three sampled woredas with a total household population of 11,762.

Using the Cochran ( 1977 ) formula with a 95% confidence level and a precision of 0.05, and assuming a variability of 20% due to time constraints, the sample size was calculated as follows:

Therefore, the sample size was determined to be 245.

The sampled proportion was then distributed in each woreda (Table 1 ) based on the number of households, using the formula: \(nh = \left( {{\textstyle{{Nh} \over N}}} \right){{{n}}}\) where Nh represents the population on each woreda , N is the total household population, nh is the total sampled population.

It is worth noting that one questionnaire had missing values, resulting in a total of 244 questionnaires being used for the analysis. The survey questionnaire also included a section on the socio-demographic profile of the households. In this study, a chi-square model was employed to test the relationship between categorical data.

Results and discussion

Solid waste segregation practices.

Table 2 presents the findings of the solid waste segregation practices based on the analysis of data from 244 respondents. The analysis revealed that the majority of survey households (63.5%) recognized the importance of solid waste segregation practices. This indicates that the community has a significant understanding of solid waste segregation, which can encourage the actual implementation of segregation practices.

According to the input from focus group discussions and key informant interviews, mass media, health extension services, and waste collectors have played a major role in disseminating information (although it has been limited thus far) on the importance of solid waste segregation. A study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) in Malaysia also indicated that a large proportion (86.3%) of respondents had heard about waste segregation through mass media or community discussions. However, the authors emphasized that simply providing information does not guarantee people’s active involvement in implementing waste segregation practices. Similarly, Abdel-Shafy and Mansour ( 2018 ) reported that the success of any solid waste segregation practice heavily relies on the level of public awareness and active participation of different communities. It is essential for the community to undergo a radical attitudinal change that allows the acquired knowledge to be translated into practical implementation.

The study also examined the willingness of respondents to engage in solid waste segregation practices, revealing that the majority (84%) expressed their willingness to implement the practice. This indicates a significant potential to translate this willingness into action through further efforts in public awareness campaigns, capacity-building initiatives, and policy support.

A similar study conducted in Suzhou, China demonstrated that residents’ positive attitudes and willingness to engage in solid waste separation played a crucial role in the rapid adoption of the practice (Zhang and Wen, 2014 ). This suggests that by leveraging the positive attitudes and willingness of individuals, combined with educational initiatives, the implementation of solid waste segregation practices can be accelerated.

The study found that slightly more than half of the respondents (54.1%) reported a lack of sufficient space to segregate waste in their residence areas. Focus group discussants further highlighted the challenges faced by waste collectors in segregating waste in congested living conditions. This indicates that the absence of adequate space to segregate collected waste in situ in residential areas is a barrier to achieving the required level of segregation for different communities.

This finding aligns with a study conducted by the United States Environmental Protection Agency ( 2020 ), which emphasized that a well-designed storage system will not be effective if the locations or containers for waste segregation are inconvenient for residents or waste collectors. Therefore, addressing the issue of limited space and ensuring convenient and accessible segregation points are crucial factors for promoting effective waste segregation practices.

The study found that 54.5% of the respondents do not prepare different containers for solid waste segregation, while 45.9% of respondents reported not having the necessary materials for segregating waste or keeping different kinds of waste separately. This indicates that overall, the practice of solid waste segregation at the source (household) is poor in the community.

A study conducted by Tassie et al. ( 2019 ) supports these findings, highlighting the importance of good awareness and appropriate facilities for the proper implementation of segregation practices. When the community has sufficient awareness and motivation, individual households can use materials available at home such as baskets, cardboard boxes, bamboo containers, cans, plastic bags, barrels, etc., to prepare temporary storage containers for waste segregation. Similarly, Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) found that providing more facilities such as bins and containers in housing areas, in addition to creating awareness, can enhance community participation in waste segregation.

Among the survey households, 45.5% reported segregating waste sometimes, while 21.3% reported segregating waste regularly. On the other hand, 28.7% of respondents did not segregate waste before disposing of it from their homes or compounds, and 4.5% were unsure about the practice. This indicates that only one-fifth of sampled respondents correctly implement solid waste segregation at the household level, while the majority (79%) either practice segregation rarely or not at all. For those households not practicing segregation or uncertain about it, targeted interventions such as education, public awareness campaigns, enabling policies, sufficient infrastructure, and incentive mechanisms need to be implemented by the relevant authorities to promote the adoption and scaling up of segregation practices. A study by Yoada et al. ( 2014 ) in Accra, Ghana, reported that only 17.3% of respondents indicated that the households sort waste by category at home before delivering it to collectors, which reflects the broader trend observed in many African cities.

Table 2 provides insights into the reasons for the non-segregation of waste at the household or outdoor level. According to the table, 50.4% of the respondents thought that they generate a very small amount of waste, leading them to consider waste separation as pointless. Additionally, 25.6% of respondents reported a lack of facilities for waste segregation, 10.5% mentioned the inability to afford dust bins due to cost, and another 10.5% were not aware of the practice of segregation.

During the focus group discussions, participants expressed the view that segregation could be more feasible if they generated larger volumes of solid waste. Some participants expressed the need for external support to provide facilities such as dust bins, while others showed a lack of concern and awareness about the importance of solid waste segregation. These findings suggest a lack of awareness and limited motivation among the community to engage in segregation practices. In line with these findings, Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) also reported that people often disregard segregating waste at the source due to poor awareness, lack of facilities and equipment like containers, or the low volumes of recyclable materials generated.

The study found that in terms of separating waste at temporary solid waste disposal places, 36.9% of the respondents do not separate the waste at all, and 12.3% are unsure about whether they separate solid waste. On the other hand, 29.9% of the respondents always separate waste, and 20.9% sometimes separate waste. These findings suggest that, in general, the community has a low inclination toward practicing solid waste segregation outside their homes. There seems to be a common attitude of “I don’t care after I’ve used it”.

These findings align with the study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which revealed that communities do not have a promising attitude towards solid waste segregation as long as the waste is collected. The research conducted in Accra by Yoada et al. ( 2014 ) also highlighted that citizens do not take responsibility for proper waste disposal, including segregation, as they rely on the government to remove household-generated waste. This can be attributed, in part, to a poor attitude and lack of concern about the environment and public health.

These attitudes and behaviors reflect a need for increased awareness, education, and a shift in mindset toward the importance of proper waste segregation and disposal. Efforts to promote community engagement, responsible waste management practices, and environmental consciousness can help address these challenges and encourage greater participation in waste segregation.

According to Fig. 2 , the majority (76.2%) of respondents associate the 3Rs (Reuse, Recycling, and Recovery) primarily with the segregation of waste. A portion of respondents (12.3%) reported not knowing about the 3Rs, and 11.5% were unsure. Overall, the majority of participants demonstrated a good understanding of the 3Rs, particularly in relation to solid waste segregation. They recognized the economic value of waste and provided examples such as using animal dung or other decomposable waste for composting and selling plastic bottles to generate income.

Source: Questionnaire survey (2022).

Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) reported that waste segregation is a crucial element in the waste management chain for effective implementation of the 3Rs. Segregation at the source simplifies handling and processing, thereby facilitating resource recovery, promoting reuse and recycling, and reducing operational costs. Similarly, Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ) suggested that discarded products and waste materials possess economic value when they are reused or reintroduced into the technological cycle. Therefore, source segregation is fundamental for successful and economically viable recycling activities.

According to Fig. 3 , when asked about the importance of solid waste segregation at the source for waste reduction, over 73% of the respondents believed that the practice is effective in reducing waste. Only 3.2% perceived that it does not contribute to waste reduction, and the remaining respondents were unsure. This indicates that a significant number of community members understand that segregating waste at the source can lead to a reduction in the volume of generated solid waste at various levels.

Source: Questionnaire survey, 2022.

This finding is consistent with the study conducted by Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which emphasizes that practicing segregation at the source can significantly reduce the amount of solid waste that ends up in landfills. Similarly, the study by Kihila et al. ( 2021 ) suggests that waste segregation at the source can lead to a significant reduction in waste volumes, ultimately improving the efficiency of collection and disposal processes. These findings highlight the importance of promoting and implementing solid waste segregation practices as an effective means of waste reduction, contributing to more efficient waste management systems.

Figure 4 illustrates the type of materials used for waste collection among the survey respondents. The majority (65.2%) reported using sacks, 12.3% use plastic bags, 7.7% use both plastic and glass containers, 2.5% use metallic materials, and 12.3% do not use any fixed type of material. The predominant use of sacks for sorting solid waste indicates a potential for reusing or recycling them. However, it is important to note that the use of sacks can lead to the escape of leachate materials, which poses a risk of environmental pollution (e.g., water or soil contamination) and may require frequent replacement (Abebe, 2017 ).

Overall, the key informant interviewees and focus group discussants confirmed the low level of understanding and awareness among households regarding solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa, despite some recent improvements. They attributed the limited progress to sporadic door-to-door awareness activities conducted by the health extension workers and informal communication from the waste collectors. However, in most residential areas of the city, proper practices of solid waste segregation have been lagging at all levels.

Determinants of solid waste segregation practices

In the study, Chi-square and t -test analyses were conducted to examine the relationship between various variables and the willingness of solid waste segregation. The p -value was used to assess the statistical significance of the observed results. A p -value of <0.005 indicates a higher level of statistical significance, suggesting a significant correlation between the variables.

The variables of gender, educational level, monthly income, willingness, awareness/training, and use of social organizations were specifically analyzed to determine their potential association with solid waste segregation practices. The results of these analyses can provide insights into the factors that influence the willingness of individuals to engage in solid waste segregation.

Gender and solid waste segregation practice

According to the results presented in Table 3 , the calculated value of Chi-square is 1.565 with a p -value of 0.211. This indicates that there is no significant association between the gender of the respondents and their practice of solid waste segregation at the gate/door.

Traditionally, domestic chores and household management, including activities related to house cleaning, have been culturally associated with women’s roles in many developing countries (Banga, 2011 ). However, our analysis did not find a significant difference between male and female respondents in terms of segregating solid waste before disposal. It is worth noting that female members generally have knowledge and decision-making authority regarding what is considered useful and non-waste, although male members also cooperate in waste management practices.

Educational level of the respondents

According to Table 3 , the p -value obtained for the association between educational level and solid waste segregation practice at the gate/door is 0.446, indicating an insignificant difference. The analysis suggests that the educational level of the respondents is not significantly associated with their practice of solid waste segregation.

This finding is consistent with previous studies conducted by Abebe ( 2017 ) and Otitoju and Seng ( 2014 ), which also reported a lack of significant relationship between the educational level of households and their participation in solid waste segregation at the source. It implies that people’s attitude towards waste segregation, rather than their education or knowledge, plays a more significant role in determining their household-level waste segregation practices.

Monthly income of the respondents

As indicated in Table 3 , the calculated t -test value for the association between monthly income (with a mean monthly income of 5141.4 Birr and 4618.4 Birr std. deviation) and solid waste segregation practice at the gate is −0.185, assuming equal variances, with a p -value of 0.220. This suggests that there is an insignificant association between the monthly income of respondents and their practice of solid waste segregation practice at the gate.

The focus group discussions also supported this finding, as they did not observe any substantial difference in waste segregation practices among households with different income levels. This implies that income level does not play a significant role in determining the extent to which households segregate their solid waste at the source. Other factors, such as awareness, motivation, and access to facilities, may have a stronger influence on waste segregation practices than income alone.

Awareness and training

As presented in Table 3 , the Chi-square test value for the association between respondents’ awareness/training and practice of solid waste segregation at the gate is 50.920, with a p -value of 0.000. This indicates a highly significant ( p  < 001) association between respondent’s awareness or training and their practice of solid waste segregation at the gate.

The analysis demonstrates that an increase in public awareness and the provision of relevant training can have a significant impact on promoting and encouraging solid waste segregation practices at the household or gate/door level. When individuals are aware of the importance of waste segregation and have received appropriate training on how to implement it effectively, they are more likely to actively engage in segregating their waste at the source.

These findings emphasize the importance of targeted awareness campaigns and training programs to improve waste management practices, particularly in promoting solid waste segregation. By increasing the knowledge and understanding of the community, it becomes more feasible to enhance the adoption and implementation of waste segregation practices, leading to more effective waste management and environmental sustainability.

Role of social organizations (e.g. Idir , Ikub )

As indicated in Table 3 , the Chi-square test value for the relationship between the use of social organizations (such as Idir and Iqub ) and the practice of solid waste segregation at the gate is 10.878, with a p -value of 0.001. This suggests a significant association between the use of social organizations and the practice of solid waste segregation.

The findings highlight that individuals who actively participate in social organizations, such as Idir and Iqub , are more likely to engage in solid waste segregation practices at the household or gate/door level. While Idir is aimed at helping each other, especially in funerals or burials, Iqub is a traditional mutual saving and credit association. These social organizations can serve as platforms for disseminating information, promoting awareness, and encouraging community members to adopt sustainable waste management practices. The collective nature of these associations can foster a sense of social responsibility and cooperation, leading to increased participation in waste segregation activities.

Other studies have also shown that active participation in social groups or associations can positively influence individuals’ attitudes and behaviors, including waste management practices. The sense of belonging, shared values, and mutual support within these organizations can contribute to the adoption of group decisions and actions, such as the implementation of waste segregation practices (Begashaw, 1978 ; Aredo, 1993 ).

Therefore, leveraging the existing social organizations in the community and engaging them in waste management initiatives can be an effective strategy to promote and enhance solid waste segregation practices at the household level. By working together through these organizations, communities can create a collective impact and contribute to the improvement of waste management and environmental sustainability.

This study focused on exploring household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city. The findings reveal that solid waste segregation practices at the household level are very low in the city, with significant variations in awareness, understanding, and willingness among the community to adequately implement these practices effectively. Only one-fifth of sampled respondents reported implementing solid waste segregation, while the majority (79%) of the respondents either rarely practiced the segregation or did not at all. Analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data from this study indicates that awareness and attitude regarding solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city are still poor, despite some recent progress. Consequently, the actual implementation of solid waste segregation practices is generally weak. The analysis demonstrates that household awareness/training and the use of social organizations have a positive and significant impact on solid waste segregation practices. However, other household factors such as gender, income, and education level do not seem to influence households’ willingness to segregate solid waste at home or at the gate. Based on these findings, efforts should be focused on raising broad public awareness and providing training to improve the knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of individual households and residents regarding solid waste segregation practices. This should be complemented by necessary policy interventions, such as additional regulatory measures, and support for recycling facilities. Therefore, targeted interventions, including intensive awareness campaigns, the facilitation of relevant infrastructure, and other incentive mechanisms, should be considered by the government and local authorities to promote the adoption and scaling up of waste segregation practices. Although this study had limitations in fully understanding the barriers and opportunities in waste management practices, it provides useful insights for other rapidly urbanizing cities in the developing world. A more detailed study focusing on people’s knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors could further explore the underlying causes of poor waste segregation practices.

Data availability

Data will be shared on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors express their sincere gratitude to all the respondents who participated in the survey, focus group discussion, and key informant interviews. The valuable time and willingness of the participants to share their insights and information were essential for the success of this study. Their contributions have greatly contributed to the generation of meaningful data and the overall quality of the research. The authors appreciate their cooperation and willingness to engage in the research process.

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Adefris, W., Damene, S. & Satyal, P. Household practices and determinants of solid waste segregation in Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 516 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01982-7

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Testing the role of waste management and environmental quality on health indicators using structural equation modeling in pakistan.

1. Introduction

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Akmal, T.; Jamil, F. Testing the Role of Waste Management and Environmental Quality on Health Indicators Using Structural Equation Modeling in Pakistan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084193

Akmal T, Jamil F. Testing the Role of Waste Management and Environmental Quality on Health Indicators Using Structural Equation Modeling in Pakistan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 2021; 18(8):4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084193

Akmal, Tanzila, and Faisal Jamil. 2021. "Testing the Role of Waste Management and Environmental Quality on Health Indicators Using Structural Equation Modeling in Pakistan" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 8: 4193. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084193

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Testing the Role of Waste Management and Environmental Quality on Health Indicators Using Structural Equation Modeling in Pakistan

Associated data.

Data published in this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the policy of the research project.

Improper management of municipal waste has become a growing concern globally due to its impact on the environment, health, and overall living conditions of households in cities. Waste production has increased because households do not adopt waste management practices that ensure sustainability. Previous studies on household waste management often considered socio-economic aspects and overlooked the environmental and behavioral factors influencing the disposal practices and health status. This study adopted four constructs, defensive attitude, environmental knowledge, environmental quality, and waste disposal, by employing a structural equation modeling approach to explore research objectives. Data from 849 households of the Islamabad-Rawalpindi metropolitan was collected by using a multi-stage sampling technique. The structural model results showed that the two constructs, environmental knowledge and defensive behavior, positively affect household health status. The most significant health-related considerations are waste disposal and environmental quality, both of which negatively impact health status and do not support our hypothesis. The results provide valuable perspectives to enable households to engage actively in waste management activities. The findings indicate that understanding the intentions of household health status drivers can assist policymakers and agencies in promoting an efficient and successful community programmes related to sustainable solid waste management by allowing them to foster how the desired behavior can be achieved.

1. Introduction

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is an important economic and environmental issue around the globe. MSW management is already a critical concern for municipal authorities, especially in emerging economies, due to the exponential increase in waste generation parallel with population growth, increasing living standards, urbanization, and rapid development [ 1 , 2 ]. In parallel, MSW management authorities lack infrastructure and the capacity to safely collect and dispose of waste to meet the growing demand. Rural-to-urban migration in emerging economies has resulted in unplanned urban settlements, which put tremendous pressure on municipality authorities. As a result, coping with household solid waste has become a big stumbling block for urban growth. Nevertheless, there is a gap between the demand and supply of these services in terms of quality and efficiency [ 3 , 4 ].

The MSW problem has become an important challenge to sustainable development in developing countries [ 5 ]. The lack of resources coupled with municipalities’ weak institutional capacity to comply with existing solid waste management structure, insufficient facilities for collection, transport, treatment and disposal of waste, limited technical competence and low level of public knowledge have made solid waste management difficult for local authorities [ 3 , 6 ]. Improper waste management leads to waste spreading along the roadsides, drainage, and haphazard dumping, all of which pose a serious risk to the environment and health [ 7 ] and urban flooding and waterlogging [ 8 ].

Open dumping and waste burning have been related to major public health hazards and contamination sources, resulting in the release of harmful dioxins and other toxic substances. At very low doses, these compounds cause a surprising range of harmful effects in humans. Adaptation of defensive behavior is a cognitive process of individuals, including people’s value and belief systems, attitudes and perceptions, personalities, motivations, aspirations, and community, to reduce the negative effects of excessive waste disposal. These cognitive factors drive household decisions about the hazardous impact of waste on human health and the environment and the essence of their reaction to negative impacts have prompted environmental psychologists to pay more attention to psychological aspects of climate change adaptation [ 9 , 10 ].

Pakistan’s population has been rising at a rate of 2.4% per year since 1998, reaching a peak of 207.7 million in 2017, which corresponds to the sixth most populous country. Islamabad is the capital and tenth-largest city with a 1.019 million population and Rawalpindi is the 4th largest city with 2.09 million inhabitants [ 11 ]. The average waste generation rate varies from 1.896 kg/house/day to 4.29 kg/house/day. Although the waste collection system is inadequate, the average waste collection rate in Pakistan’s public sector is 50% [ 12 ]. Open dumping is the most common practice, and dumping sites are often set on fire to reduce the amount of waste that accumulates, which has adverse effects on health and the environment. Public health and societal life are affected by health hazards, pest proliferation, and the spread of diseases. Municipalities fail to manage solid waste due to financial constraints and the careless behavior of the inhabitants. Solid waste has negative impacts on the environment, including air, soil, water contamination, climate change, and devastating effects on the flora and fauna [ 13 , 14 ].

The contribution of this study covers three aspects. First, to the authors’ knowledge, there was no inclusive research in Pakistan on household environmental and defensive behaviors in relation to waste disposal and studies that have generally investigated household’s defensive behaviors have been limited in Pakistan [ 15 ], although there has been some work on the environmental quality and adaptation for the poor sewage system in Pakistan [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Second, the study is of great worth in monitoring, controlling and humanizing local peoples’ waste management behavior. Specifically, the current study analyzes the impact of different socio-psychological variables (environmental quality, environmental knowledge, and defensive behavior) on health status that has received little attention. Accordingly, this study focused on the metropolitan area of Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Pakistan in order to gain a better understanding of the social economic and environmental factors that influence health. Third, our study also provides viable policy options for mitigating the health hazards of waste pollution and poor environmental quality within the Asian region since we share a common culture, so question is therefore also relevant to other countries in the Asian region.

2. Theoretical Model

Inter-relationships between constructs.

The need for environmental conservation in society has gradually increased. Human activities and anthropogenic impacts have a substantial adverse environmental effect [ 19 , 20 ]. In this regard households have different solid waste management preferences. In general, individuals make their choices based on the assumptions of rationality and self-interest.

Several studies have examined the role of key socio-economic and demographic variables such as age [ 21 ], income, educational attainment [ 22 ] and health status. Waste is the product of human and economic activity, and it is determined by person, ecosystem, and community behavior. Solid waste is a significant environmental problem that jeopardizes long-term environmental sustainability [ 23 ]. Therefore, the following hypotheses are put forth based on theoretical framework (see Figure 1 ):

Structural model of the hypotheses

Waste disposal is positively and significantly associated with health status.

The researchers have made significant efforts to relate improper solid waste management to health issues such as respiratory disorders, vector disease, aesthetic damage, drain blockage, water and soil contamination [ 2 , 24 ]. Environmental deterioration through waste pollution, air and water quality contribute significantly to the proliferation of diseases [ 25 , 26 ]. The consumption and waste disposal habits of households have a direct effect on the environment [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].

Environmental quality is positively and significantly associated with health status.

The social and consumption behavior of households are imperative factors that contribute to waste generation and disposal. The social and consumption behavior of households depends on environmental knowledge. As a result, environmental awareness leads to defensive behavior, which is needed to avoid the harmful effects of solid waste [ 30 , 31 ]. As a result, households are encouraged to participate in hygiene waste management programs to reduce the negative impact on public health and the environment. Therefore, health and environment should be understood as two essential inseparable development aspects that cannot be sustained as though they operate in a vacuum [ 32 , 33 ].

Defensive behavior is positively and significantly associated with health status.

Household defensive behavior is motivated by awareness of potentially harmful effects, as well as time and resources. Previous research [ 34 , 35 , 36 ] looked at several incidents in various parts of the world. According to these reports, households that have been exposed to certain catastrophe circumstances are more risk-averse. Individuals who are aware of then issue are more likely to respond and engage in risk-reduction practices. Based on the above literature, we develop the following hypotheses.

Environmental knowledge is positively and significantly associated with health status.

3. Research Methods

3.1. data collection.

To achieve the study’s objectives, data on household waste management practices environmental quality, environmental knowledge, defensive behavior and health status were gathered from 849 respondents. For selecting the sample size and study area, several factors have been taken into consideration such as the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of selected households for survey. A “multi-stage systematic technique” was used to choose the study area and household sample size.

So far, Pakistan does not have an institutional review board or national ethical guidelines for social science studies. Therefore, the study adhered to existing research ethics principles such as obtaining verbal consent to participate in research, safeguarding personal data, informal privacy, and allowing participants to withdraw their consent if they so wished at any point. In addition, no personal information was used in this analysis. Participants, who provided information related to solid waste generation and related information, were used in this research.

A questionnaire has been finalized after conducting pre-testing in the field. Pre-testing helped us to construct a better contextualize and revised questionnaire. A five-point Likert scale 1 = strongly disagree; 2 = disagree; 3 = neutrality; 4 = agree; 5 = strongly agree, was used to evaluate each question in the questionnaire. We have designed six questions to measure households’ waste disposal behavior, five questions for environmental quality, six questions on environmental knowledge, six questions on defensive behavior. Finally, we have designed four questions related to household health. Precise questions are shown in Table 1 . Primarily data was input into the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software (IBM, Armank, NY, USA) to generate descriptive statistics and their frequency and correlation test. Finally, we conducted a structural equation analysis through Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS 20). Social-economic information of respondents is given in Appendix A (see Table A1 ).

Statements and scales used for the four constructs.

3.2. Measurement Model (MM)

In this analysis, the structural equation modeling (SEM) method is used to evaluate the data using latent constructs in this study. To test our model, we used the Anderson and Gerbing’s [ 35 ] two-step approach. The first step was to establish a satisfactory measurement model (MM) using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). The MM included latent constructs for environmental awareness, environmental quality, waste disposal, safety, and health status. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to determine the reliability of constructs. In additional, convergent and discriminant validity is used to evaluate construct validity. The magnitude, direction, and statistical significance of each latent construct’s standardized factor loadings were checked for convergent validity. Additionally, using the average variance extracted (AVE) and the building reliability, convergent validity was investigated. A MM is valid when a minimum AVE level is higher than 0.5, and when the minimum value of CR is higher than 0.7 [ 36 ].

Maximum likelihood estimation in structural equation modeling assumes multivariate normality. We looked at the univariate distributions for each component because assessing all aspects of multivariate normality is difficult. This method can be used to determine multivariate normality [ 37 ]. Multivariate collinearity was calculated by running multiple regressions, each with a different item as the dependent variable and the rest of the items as the independent variables, and then analyzing the tolerance and variance inflation factor (VIF) for each regression [ 37 ]. We measured each statement’s communality extraction to check the reliability and validity of each construct scores above 0.5., which showed that each factor is independent [ 37 , 38 ].

After we attained a rational measurement model, the structure model was calculated to test the health status hypotheses. Structural modeling is used to predict relationships between households’ cognitions constructs (environmental knowledge, environmental quality, waste disposal, defensive behavior) and their health status. The SM is shown in Figure 2 .

Structural equations modeling and path coefficients between variables.

The first step is to test the reliability test of survey data. There are two generic measures for reliability: Cronbach’s α and composite reliability [ 39 ]. The Cronbach’s α value is used to check the reliability of the data. Data is consistent when Cronbach’s α lies between 0.60 and 0.70; the data set used in analysis is highly reliable when the value is between 0.70 and 0.80 and cut off scores for composite reliability is between 0.6 and 0.7 [ 40 ]. SPSS 23.0 was used to check the internal reliability of five constructs (environmental knowledge, environmental quality, waste disposal, defensive behavior and health status). The results of Cronbach’s α values for five latent variables; waste disposal, defensive behavior environmental knowledge, environmental quality, and health status is 0.92, 0.92, 0.89, 0.93, and 0.85 respectively revealed good internal consistency.

A confirmatory factor analysis was applied to check the properties of the measurement scale [ 41 ]. The conventional rules of thumb [ 37 ] are followed for goodness-of-fit indices of the confirmatory factor analysis. Reliability tests try to find the stability and consistency of measuring instruments. Confirmatory factor analysis shows goodness-of-fit and specific indices for the empirical data such as chi-square standardized by degrees of freedom (λ/df) is shown in Table 2 . It should be less than five [ 42 ], in our study it is 3.71. The NFI, and CFI should exceed 0.9 and RMSEA should be less than 0.10 [ 43 ]. Here, goodness of fits was as follows; NFI = 0.931, CFI = 0.948, and RMSEA = 0.057. Thus, results showed that the model could be accepted for empirical analysis with good convergent indices and goodness of fit [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ]. Results of correlation test are given in Appendix A (please see Table A2 ).

Reliability and validity test.

χ 2 test statistics/df; CFI (comparative fit index); NFI (normed fit index); RMSEA (root mean square error of approximation).

5. Discussion

Results show that SEM is an appropriate methodology for explaining the behavior of the metropolitan Islamabad-Rawalpindi area towards waste management. The configuration of the MM and SM was appropriate. In four-specified MM, the latent constructs waste disposal, environmental quality, environmental knowledge, defensive behavior was reliably described by the measurable items. All the standard coefficients of estimated SEM revealed that path analysis ( Figure 2 ) specified the relationships’ strength among all variables. Standard coefficients depict that all the observed indicators have values around 0.5 and are strongly related to their associated constructs [ 38 ]. Regarding direct and indirect effects, subsequent explanations are made.

The SM results showed that two constructs—environmental knowledge and defensive behavior—positively affect the household health status. Environmental knowledge positively influences the health status (0.30) and defensive behavior (0.01) of households at 0.5 [ 37 ]. Low-carbon consumption and environmental behavior is linked with environmental knowledge [ 45 , 46 ]. Individuals with a dearth of knowledge are more likely to harm the environment. Household’s defensive behavior has a direct positive effect on health status (0.14) and our hypothesis is confirmed. Hence, the findings show that households who are well aware of health and environmental risks are more involved in defensive practices.

The standardized coefficient of environmental quality on defensive behavior and household health status is statistically significant and has a negative impact. Environmental quality has a direct impact on health status [ 46 ] and an indirect impact on the defensive practices of households. This implies that the households who are putting efforts to adopt a green environment are less intent on adopting defensive behavior and vice versa. The most important factor related to health risk is waste disposal, which negatively affected health status and does not support our hypothesis. The findings indicate that inadequate waste management has serious effects on household health and results are consistent with the existing literature [ 14 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Moreover, waste disposal has a positive indirect impact on household defensive behavior, indicating an increase in improper waste disposal, leading to improved household defensive practices.

Estimated results are shown in Table 3 . The standardized path coefficients of the households’ environmental knowledge and defensive behavior are 0.202 ( p < 0.01) and 0.094 ( p < 0.01) respectively. The impact of environmental knowledge and defensive practices on health is statistically significant at 1% confidence level. Results shows that direct effects of environmental knowledge and defensive practices on health are supported to our hypothesis. Our results are consistent with existing studies. Moreover, the environmental knowledge has largest effect (0.202) on household’s health status accompanied by defensive behavior.

Results of the structural model (SM).

Note: ***, **, significant at, 1%, and 5%.

While the impact of environmental quality is statistically significant −0.049 ( p < 0.01), results shows that environmental quality has detrimental effects on household health status. The standardized path coefficients of waste disposal is statistically significant −0.273 ( p < 0.01). Water, air, food and rats dwelling pollution through flies’ sources of several diseases in humans as plague, salmonellosis, trichinosis, endemic typhus dysentery, diarrhea and amoebic dysentery [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 ].

6. Conclusions and Policy Implications

We estimated an SM to test the hypotheses after we obtained a valid MM. Table 3 presents the results for the SM. The regression coefficient of waste disposal and environmental quality on health was negative and significant, suggesting the rejection of hypotheses H1, and H2. Waste disposal has a positive indirect effect on the defensive behavior of households, suggesting that a rise in excessive waste disposal leads to shift in defensive behavior, and environmental quality has a direct effect on health and an indirect impact on household standard precautions. The positive and significant regression coefficient of defensive behavior and environmental knowledge on health supports hypotheses H3 and H4.

The results of this study offer useful perspectives for policymakers. In the present case study, this could be related to the government’s solid waste management strategy. Government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) could participate to encourage households to segregate of waste at first source and propagate the benefits of a healthy environment. While environmental knowledge is an important factor regarding waste segregation and disposal it is recommended that government agencies and other associations tackle solid waste management by providing detailed information regarding different scenarios of waste disposal and segregation, and different households recycling forecasts at local and national levels. They should also provide details about the dangerous effects of illegal solid waste disposal on safety and the environment. In other words, the focus should be on shaping a proper system for collecting and disposing of waste. Accuracy and timelines of information are therefore important.

Acknowledgments

We are humbly grateful to Muhammad Haseeb Raza for his assistance in conceptual framework, data analysis of this research and for their comments on an earlier versions of the manuscript.

The data distribution of households for each socio-economic and demographic characteristic are presented in Table A1 . Demographic statements that were incorporated in the survey included gender, age, education and income. A majority of (64.8%) of respondents in the sample are males and 35.2% are females. A substantial portion (37%) of households belongs to the early middle age group (21–30). The education level of households was low as follows: 23.9% of households were illiterate, 6.7% of households attended secondary school, 25.7% went to high school and just 21.7% of households had entered university. Regarding income, 21% of households claimed their monthly family income was less than 30.000 thousand rupees and 24% of respondents reported to being in the high income group.

Social-economic information of respondents.

Source: [ 14 ].

Correlations of the constructs.

Note: *, **, significant at 1% and 5% and squared correlations in parentheses.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, T.A.; Data curation, T.A.; Formal analysis, T.A.; Methodology, T.A.; Project administration, F.J.; Resources, F.J.; Supervision, F.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research does not receive any funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

So far, Pakistan does not have an institutional review board or national ethical guidelines for Economics studies. The study therefore adhered to existing research ethics principles such as obtaining verbal consent to participate in research, retaining personal informal privacy, and allowing participants to withdraw their consent if they so wished at any point. In addition, no personal information was used in this analysis.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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The present study aims to develop the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explain comprehensively the establishment of intention and behavior toward source separation of waste. The extended TPB involves the significant structures affecting the behavior along with the original variables of TPB model. Data were gathered from 420 students in Ferdowsi University, Iran, using questionnaires, and analyzed by cluster analysis, discriminant analysis and structural equation modelling techniques (SEM). The cluster analysis identified three distinct grouping according to TPB constructs, and it was validated by discriminant analysis. SEM results displays that motivation had the most important impact on intention, followed by moral obligation, perceived behavior control, subjective norm, situational factor and attitude. Fit statistic of the extended TPB model was good and had better explanatory power compared to the original TPB. It describes 81 and 57% of the variance for intention and behavior toward source separation waste, respectively.

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Authors would like to enthusiastically appreciate all FUM students who kindly joined this survey and filled out the questionnaire.

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Heidari, A., Kolahi, M., Behravesh, N. et al. Youth and sustainable waste management: a SEM approach and extended theory of planned behavior. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 20 , 2041–2053 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-018-0754-1

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Main article content, evaluation of biodegradability potentials of pleurotus ostreatus (jacq) p. kumm. cultivated on solid wastes supplemented with medicinal plant leaves, a. o. olalemi, d. j. arotupin.

Mushrooms can be considered as an ecological bioconversion tools to recycle agricultural and agro-industrial wastes. Hence, the objective of this paper was to evaluate the biodegradability potentials of Pleurotus ostreatus (jacq) P. Kumm cultivated on solid wastes supplemented with medicinal plant leaves using standard chemical and biological methods. The yield and biological efficiency of P. ostreatus revealed that oil palm fibre supplemented with M. oleifera had highest (124) and (82.66 %) while P. ostreatus cultivated on rags had least (66) and (44.00 %). Degradation of lignin had highest (67.77 %) at (spawn run) in P. ostreatus cultivated on rags, while cellulose and hemicellulose had highest (28.58 % and 33.01%) in P. ostreatus cultivated on plantain peels supplemented with M. oleifera and pampers supplemented with C. citratus respectively. Percent carbon content of rags had highest (43.34 %, 39.12 %, 35.76 % and 27.29 %) at first day, spawn run, fructification and spent compost (at harvest) respectively. The nitrogen content increases as the growth phase progresses, plantain peels supplemented with M. oliefera had highest (2.41 %, 2.83 %, 2.95 % and 3.01 %) and least of (0.21 %, 0.40 %, 0.73 % and 1.21 %) occurred on pampers supplemented with M. oliefera at first day, spawn run, fructification and spent compost (at harvest) respectively. Cultivation of P. ostreatus on solid wastes supplemented with medicinal plant leaves can be a good means of waste management and production of mushroom rich in nutraceutical properties.

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Black Hawk County Solid Waste Management Commission Facility, Waterloo, Iowa - Fact Sheet, July 2024

Public comment period for draft rcra post-closure permit, introduction.

EPA Region 7 invites the public to review and comment on the draft Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Post-Closure Permit for the Black Hawk County Solid Waste Management Commission (BHCSWMC) facility, located at 1509 East Washburn Road in Waterloo, Iowa. The 45-day public comment period will run from July 1, 2024, to Aug. 15, 2024 . The permit requires the facility to continue post-closure care of two hazardous waste landfill cells.

The facility property includes approximately 39 acres that comprise the two hazardous waste landfill cells, Neutral Trench and Co-Disposal Area. These two landfill cells received hazardous wastes from about 1980 to 1985. Both cells were closed with waste in place by 1989. “Closed” means that no more hazardous or other wastes were to be, nor have been, received and a clay cap cover was installed with vegetation established to stabilize the cap.

A groundwater monitoring well network was installed and a detection sampling program initiated to allow for detection of a release of chemicals from either unit. The continued post-closure care will include a maintenance and inspection program to maintain the integrity of the landfill caps and vegetation and other security features, such as fences and locks.

In addition, a groundwater monitoring program to protect human health and the environment from chemicals in groundwater will continue, with modification as described below.

The permit requires that physical controls, such as a fence and locks, be maintained to secure the facility and wells.

Changes to the Permit

The groundwater monitoring program will continue until cleanup goals are met and maintained for three consecutive years.

When the Post-Closure Permit was reissued in 2014 for a 10-year term, the facility was conducting a detection monitoring program. Detection monitoring requires sampling of monitoring wells at the downgradient edge of a landfill cell to determine if chemicals are migrating from the closed cell. During the 2014 to 2024 permit term, chemicals were detected in downgradient monitoring wells. As required by the permit in response to these detections, the facility requested a permit modification in December 2023 to transition to a compliance and corrective action monitoring program to evaluate if chemical migration is moving off the facility property. If contamination is migrating off the site, additional action will be taken to address this migration.

The detection monitoring program found that the following chemicals in groundwater were above the listed groundwater cleanup goals. Those goals are: arsenic – 10 micrograms per liter (µg/L); chromium – 100 µg/L; vinyl chloride – 2 µg/L; bis-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (also known as DEHP) – 6 µg/L; and 1,4-dioxane – 4.6 µg/L. See online summaries about these chemicals at the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry's  ToxFAQs website .

The cleanup goals identified above are the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) under the Safe Drinking Water Act for all chemicals listed above, except for 1,4-dioxane. 1,4-Dioxane does not have an MCL, so the cleanup goal is the risk-based screening level (RSL) maintained by EPA for an increased cancer risk of one in 100,000.

The facility had a bentonite barrier wall dug into the ground to a depth to intersect the groundwater along the east edge of facility property, directly west of Hess Road. This wall was installed as a protective measure designed to capture chemicals in groundwater downgradient of the landfill cells. A new monitoring well was installed directly off the facility property to the east of the barrier wall to demonstrate that chemicals are not migrating beyond the facility property. In addition, surface water sample locations were added to identify if contamination is migrating off the site via this pathway.

For More Information

The public is encouraged to review and comment on the draft RCRA Post-Closure Permit. The permit and other supporting documents are contained in the Administrative Record and are available at the following locations during normal business hours. If not provided below, call the listed number for hours of business or to otherwise get access to the record.

Waterloo Public Library 415 East Commercial Street Waterloo, IA 50701 319-291-4476 Monday-Thursday, 9 a.m. to 8 p.m. Friday and Saturday, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. Sunday, noon to 5 p.m.

Iowa Department of Natural Resources 6200 Park Avenue, Suite 200 Des Moines, IA 50321 515-725-8200

EPA Region 7 Records Center 11201 Renner Boulevard Lenexa, KS 66219 1-800-223-0425

Guidelines for Commenting:

• Explain your views.
• Tell us if you support or disagree with the permit conditions. Please be specific.
• Provide alternatives if you disagree with the permit conditions.
• Submit comments by Aug. 15, 2024 .

A public information meeting will be held on July 16, 2024 , from 5 to 7 p.m. at the Waterloo Public Library (see address above).

A formal public hearing has not been scheduled, but will be held if there is sufficient public interest. Requests for a public hearing must be made in writing to Nadine Alzubbi , U.S. EPA Region 7 (LCRD/CAB), 11201 Renner Boulevard, Lenexa, KS 66219 for receipt by Aug. 15, 2024 , and must state the nature of issues to be raised at the hearing. EPA will evaluate any request and hold a formal hearing if it finds that a hearing will contribute to the decision-making process by clarifying significant issues affecting the cleanup remedy. A public hearing is more formal than an informational meeting, in that a transcript of the hearing is maintained and specific concerns about the permit are formally documented.

EPA will issue a final RCRA Post-Closure Permit to BHCSWMC, only after the public comment period ends and all comments are reviewed. EPA may modify the permit based on any new information and comments from the public.

Contact Information

You may submit comments or requests for a public hearing to:

Nadine Alzubbi U.S. EPA Region 7 (LCRD/CAB) 11201 Renner Boulevard Lenexa, KS 66219 Email:  [email protected]

If you have questions or want to receive a copy of the Administrative Record or further information, please contact:

Patrick Hurley Community Engagement Specialist U.S. EPA Region 7 (EJCEERD/CPSIB) 11201 Renner Boulevard Lenexa, KS 66219 1-800-223-0425 Email:  [email protected]