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Ancient Greece is widely regarded as one of the cradles of Western civilization, with its rich history, culture, and contributions to various fields such as philosophy, literature, art, and politics. Studying Ancient Greece provides a fascinating insight into the roots of our modern society. If you're looking for essay topics on this captivating subject, here are 100 Ancient Greece essay ideas and examples to inspire you:

• The impact of Ancient Greek philosophy on modern thought
• The significance of the city-state in Ancient Greece
• The role of women in Ancient Greek society
• The evolution of democracy in Ancient Greece
• The influence of Ancient Greek mythology on contemporary culture
• Comparing and contrasting Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians
• The importance of the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece
• The role of Greek mythology in Ancient Greek religion
• The influence of Ancient Greek language on modern linguistic developments
• The rise and fall of Ancient Greek city-states
• The impact of Ancient Greek theater on drama and performance today
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek art
• The role of slavery in Ancient Greek society
• The significance of the Parthenon in Ancient Greek architecture
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to medicine
• The role of education in Ancient Greece
• Exploring the concept of heroism in Ancient Greek literature
• The significance of the Battle of Marathon in Ancient Greek history
• The legacy of Alexander the Great in Ancient Greece and beyond
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek poetry
• The impact of Ancient Greek trade and colonization on the Mediterranean region
• The social structure of Ancient Greek society
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek literature
• The influence of Ancient Greek drama on modern theater
• The significance of the Delphic Oracle in Ancient Greek religion
• The development of Greek democracy in Athens
• The contributions of Ancient Greek philosophers to ethical theories
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The impact of Ancient Greek warfare on military strategies
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek politics
• The concept of beauty in Ancient Greek art and culture
• The legacy of Ancient Greek mythology in literature and film
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on Western literary traditions
• The significance of the Trojan War in Ancient Greek mythology
• The role of women in Ancient Greek politics
• The contributions of Ancient Greek architects to urban planning
• The portrayal of love and desire in Ancient Greek poetry
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on Renaissance thinkers
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek daily life
• The impact of Ancient Greek pottery on visual arts
• The significance of the Oracle at Delphi in Ancient Greek society
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of the cosmos
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek literature
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek music
• The impact of Ancient Greek colonization on cultural diffusion
• The legacy of Ancient Greek democracy in modern politics
• The significance of the Battle of Thermopylae in Ancient Greek history
• The role of religion in Ancient Greek art
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to geometry
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek theater
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on Enlightenment thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek temples in religious practices
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek dance
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on storytelling techniques
• The significance of the Oracle at Dodona in Ancient Greek religion
• The contributions of Ancient Greek engineers to technological advancements
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek drama
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on the concept of the afterlife
• The significance of Ancient Greek sculpture in representing the human form
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of celestial bodies
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek mythology
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on existentialist thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek festivals in religious celebrations
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek architecture
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on the development of the novel
• The significance of the Oracle at Delos in Ancient Greek society
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to algebra
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek poetry
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek visual arts
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on moral values
• The significance of Ancient Greek pottery in everyday life
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to medical ethics
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on postmodern thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek sanctuaries in religious rituals
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek literature for children
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on the development of the short story
• The significance of the Oracle at Dodoni in Ancient Greek religion
• The contributions of Ancient Greek engineers to architectural innovation
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek music
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek dance performances
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on burial practices
• The significance of Ancient Greek mosaics in visual arts
• The contributions of Ancient Greek astronomers to our understanding of the solar system
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek drama
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on feminist thinkers
• The significance of Ancient Greek festivals in promoting social cohesion
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek frescoes
• The impact of Ancient Greek literature on oral storytelling traditions
• The significance of the Oracle at Delphi in Ancient Greek politics
• The contributions of Ancient Greek mathematicians to number theory
• The portrayal of gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek sculpture
• The role of mythology in Ancient Greek jewelry
• The impact of Ancient Greek religion on concepts of divinity
• The significance of Ancient Greek vases in trade and commerce
• The contributions of Ancient Greek physicians to public health
• The portrayal of women in Ancient Greek poetry
• The influence of Ancient Greek philosophy on political ideologies

These essay topics provide a wide range of ideas to explore the various aspects of Ancient Greece, allowing you to delve deeper into this fascinating civilization and its enduring influence on the world. Whether you choose to focus on philosophy, mythology, art, or any other aspect, Ancient Greece offers a plethora of captivating topics to research and discuss.

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123 Ancient Greece Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on ancient greece, ✍️ ancient greece essay topics for college, 👍 good ancient greece research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting ancient greece research titles, 💡 simple ancient greece essay ideas, ❓ ancient greece essay questions.

• The Impact of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Modern Day Thought
• Influence of Mathematics in Ancient Greek Architecture
• Comparison of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome
• Philosophy of Education in Ancient Greece
• Creation Myths of Ancient Greeks and Egyptians
• Mathematics in Ancient Greek Architecture
• Ancient Greek Sculpture: Periods and Characteristics
• Role of Women in Ancient Greece Every discovery or literary work, or sculpture produced in ancient Greece is a work of men’s hands and minds.
• Homicide Perception in Ancient Greece and Rome The essay considers how citizens of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome perceived homicide and the death penalty from civil, domestic, and political perspectives.
• Ancient Greek Tragedies: Agamemnon, Antigone and Bacchae This paper discusses three ancient greek tragedies: the Agamemnon, Antigone and the Bacchae. All three plays have themes that reflect some of the problems we are facing in the world today.
• Agriculture and Food in Ancient Greece The paper states that agricultural practices and goods from Greece extended to neighboring countries in the Mediterranean as the dominance increased.
• Ancient Egyptian and Ancient Greek’s Comparison The main religious and cultural ideas portrayed by the figures outline a series of differences that represent the history of both nations in the artistic fields.
• Ancient Greek Philosophers’ Impact on Modern Thought In this paper, several examples of Ancient Greek philosopher’s contributions to modernity will be presented including the achievement of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
• Magic in Ancient Greece and Rome This paper presents an examination of magic in antiquity specifically in the Greco-Roman era. The paper focuses on this specific era because it represents strong magical elements.
• Food and Agriculture of Ancient Greece The concepts of agriculture and cuisine both have a deep connection to Greek history, culture, development, and social trends.
• Importance of Polis in Ancient Greek The significance of Polis resides in the structure of the ancient Greek world because Polis was a structure of community, or territory of the land.
• Ancient Greece at the Met: Bronze Man and Centaur The culture of Ancient Egypt represents one of the earliest attempts at identifying a man’s place in the grand scheme of the universe and compartmentalizing the phenomena and objects comprising the environment.
• Humanities from Ancient Greece Ancient Greece started with city-states’ formation, which was the critical political difference between it and other civilizations in the Ancient World.
• Ancient Greece: The Major Time Stages Modern scholars of the discipline of history distinguish several major time stages of ancient Greece. The best-studied are the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic ones.
• Kalokagathia Perspectives in Ancient Greece The concept of kalokagathia was highly important to Ancient Greek society. It went beyond the traditional aspects of beauty and status that are seen in modern-day society.
• Ancient Sexuality: Women and the Ancient Greek Symposium Greek Women played a very minor role in the affairs of Greek Society. The sexual province of women was under threat of usurpation by men in reference to the wide record of homosexuality.
• Nature of Reality from Ancient Greek Philosophers Views The paper studies ancient philosophers’ views on nature of reality. It compares ideas of Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaximander, Protagoras, Pythagoras, Anaxagoras, Plato, Aristotle.
• Women in Ancient Greece and India: Statuses, Roles, Life The paper compares men’s and women’s statuses, roles, and lives in ancient Greece. Women were disenfranchised and restricted in their freedom.
• Ancient Greek and Roman Governments The author states that Ancient Greek and Roman governments differed organizationally but were similar in many other aspects.
• Ancient Greece at the Met: Marble Column From the Temple of Artemis at Sardis Greek culture is considered to be one of the most influential cultures in the history of humanity. Its impact is particularly evident in architecture.
• First Olympics in Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is credited with being the birthplace of one of the earliest recognized sporting competitions, which is known as the Olympics.
• Ancient Greek War and Inter-State Relations In the Ancient Greek period war and inter-state relations were a well-articulated process and can be compared to the current military logistics and combat.
• The Role of Family in Ancient Greece For the ancient Greeks, a special place was occupied by the family and taking care of it. Thus, many people have loved ones, and the extended family plays a strong role in life.
• World History: Women in Ancient Greece Ancient Greece is one of the most well-known civilizations in human history. It is famous for its social and political development.
• Researching of Ancient Greek Sophistry The loss in esteem for sophistry can be associated with the many professionals’ inclination to use rhetorical abilities to pursue unfair lawsuits and political power.
• The Monumental Architecture in Ancient Greek One of the most significant cultures of the ancient world was the ancient Greek and the ancient Roman. Their territories were close to each other.
• The Role of Women in Ancient Greece A woman in ancient Greece was considered property, limited by her husband and household, and a democratic society was not formed immediately.
• Cuisine and Agriculture of Ancient Greece There are many reasons for modern students to investigate the development of cuisine and agriculture in Ancient Greece.
• Pottery and Sculpture in Ancient Greece The evolution of pottery in Ancient Greece was accompanied by changes in the decorations of items, from the Corinthian black-figure method to the red-figure technique.
• Ancient Greece in Historical Texts The ancient historical texts on Minoans published by Halsall reflect some facts about their history discovered much later than these accounts had been compiled.
• Ancient Greek Philosophy and Worldview Ancient Greek philosophy had its own character and unique differences. Scientists are still studying how people in ancient times saw the world.
• Ancient Greek & Roman and Medieval Philosophies The concept of happiness is central to Ancient Greek and Roman beliefs, yet at the Dawn of the Medieval period, people’s positions in society were predetermined.
• Navy Development in Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome Ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome demonstrated a separate range of factors contributing to the process of acknowledging the necessity of a strong navy.
• The Concept of Truth in Christianity and Ancient Greece In the essay, the concept of truth will be discussed through the lens of two distinct faith traditions: Ancient Greece and Christianity.
• The Art of Ancient Greece Modern civilization owes much of its development to ancient Greece. This relatively small state has made a significant contribution to the global culture.
• Justice in Ancient Greece: The Liberation Bearers The essay will focus on Demosthenes’ speech, The Liberation Bearers, and the tales of the Eumenides to explicate the thesis.
• The Ancient Greek Philosophers: The Heritage in Modernity The ancient philosophy has elaborated almost all basic principles that can be found in the philosophy of modernity.
• Development of the Figure in Ancient Greek Art The characteristics and ideals of art that were developed in Ancient Greece continue to play a major part in modern art. 
• Ancient Greece: Athenian Acomplishments Ancient Greece is considered to be the phenomenon of the development of human civilization. The association that arouses when hearing the word combination “Ancient Greece” is “genius”.
• Relationship Between Ancient Greek and Roman Architecture It is difficult to define the relationships between ancient Greek and Roman cultures. Analysis help to define that in architecture both of them have similarities and differences.
• Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade One of the characteristics of the history of many ancient nations is the colonization, i.n. the establishment of new settlements in foreign lands.
• Women Roles During Wartime in Ancient Greece and Rome The very unusual rights that women from Sparta possesses occurred following the reason that women were expected to complete tasks that were especially valuable to men.
• Ancient Greece in the Modern US: Digital Field Trip One of the most recognizable and evident examples of Ancient Greek influence on the modern cultural patterns is the Capitol building in Washington D.C.
• Ancient Greek Tradition and Influence on Modern Art Ancient Greeks can be regarded as one of the groups which have made the most significant contributions to the development of different types of art.
• Nature of Reality in Ancient Greek Philosophies Heraclitus believes that reality could be equated with fire. Empedocles holds that true reality is constant. Protagoras believes that man is the measure of everything.
• Hubris in Ancient Greek Tragedies One of the plays representing hubris is Hippolytus, an ancient Greek tragedy written by Euripides and first performed in Athens.
• The Ancient Greece Architecture Gallery The Ancient Greece Architecture Gallery, which is located at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, presents a piece of art that expressed the main features of Ancient Greek Culture.
• Ancient Greek Marble Column from Artemesium The marble column from the Temple of Artemis at Sardis showcases the most recognizable elements of ancient Greece’s architectural forms.
• Women in Ancient Greece In ancient Greece, women performed three main functions – childbearing, fabric weaving, and managing household.
• Accounts Correlating Science and Technology in Ancient Greece
• Tragic Heroes of Ancient Greece: Agamemnon, Achilles, and Hector
• Ancient Greece and Rome: Society and Politics
• The Strict Laws and Penalties in Ancient Greece Market Places and the Male Domination in Greek Societies
• How American Society Has Greatly Been Influenced by Ancient Greece
• From Ancient Greece to Modern Times: The Importance of Rhetorical Choices
• Alexander the Great: The Gleaming Pearl of Ancient Greece
• Eternal Prominence: The Impact of Ancient Greece
• Procedural and Substantial Democracy From an Outlook of Uzbekistan and Ancient Greece
• Labor and Democracy: The Homo Faber and The Self-Governing Citizen in Ancient Greece
• Feminism and the Power Struggle of Women in Ancient Greece
• The Three Most Prominent Philosophic Schools in Ancient Greece: Platonic, Epicurean, and Stoic
• Ancient Greece’s Obsession With Beauty
• Morality, Institutions and Economic Growth: Lessons From Ancient Greece
• Gender Inequality Throughout Ancient Greece
• Ancient Greece and Its Influence on Western Society
• Democracy: Ancient Greece vs. Present-Day USA
• Two Different Major Forms of Government During Ancient Greece
• Advancements and the Development of Agriculture in Ancient Greece and Rome
• Determining Cultural Values of Ancient Greece and Rome Through the Study of the Theater
• Prophecy, Oracles, and Dreams: From Ancient Greece to the New Testament
• Degrading Attitude Towards Women in Ancient Greece
• How Tyranny Paved the Way to Democracy: The Democratic Transition in Ancient Greece
• Plato’s Views About Conservative Christians Today as Compared to Ancient Greece
• Ancient Greece and Changing Attitudes Regarding Virtue
• Education, Military, and Governments in Ancient Greece
• Two Things That Ancient Greece Contributed to Western Civilization
• Ancient Greece: The Wars That Changed It Forever
• Path Dependence and Transitions From Tyranny to Democracy: Evidence From Ancient Greece
• Fate and Initiation and the Tragedies of Ancient Greece
• Sparta and Athens and the Greatest Societies of Ancient Greece
• Guest-Friendship, Heroism, and Pride in Ancient Greece
• Ancient Greece and Greek Scholars: Their Influence in the USA Today
• Happenings During the Archaic Period of Ancient Greece
• The Relationship Between Slave and Master in Ancient Greece
• Greek God Apollo’s Influence on Ancient Greece
• The Influence and Effects of Geography on the Economic, Religious, Philosophy, Art, and Literature Advancement of Ancient Greece
• How Ancient Greece’s Geography Affect Its Civilization
• Ancient Greece During the Archaic and Classical Period
• Letters Accounting Daily Life in Ancient Greece and Rome
• Ancient Greece: From Bronze Age to Classical Greece
• The Most Powerful Greek City of Ancient Greece
• Ancient Greece: Interpreting Herodotus and Thucydides
• Oppression and Sexism Among Women in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and Ancient Maya
• How Did Ancient Greece Emulate the Egyptians and Left an Everlasting Legacy of Science, Art, and Trade?
• Why Was Ancient Greece the First Civilization to Develop Democracy?
• How Did Ancient Greece Influence Western Civilization?
• What Were the Social Issues Surrounding Women in Ancient Greece?
• Where Were the Olympic Games in Ancient Greece Held?
• In Ancient Greece, What Was the Prize for the Winners in the Olympic Games?
• What Were the Most Prominent Philosophic Schools in Ancient Greece?
• Who Could Vote in Ancient Greece?
• How Does the Modern World Compare to Ancient Greece?
• What Role Did Socrates Play in Ancient Greece?
• At Which Period of Time Did the Civilization of Ancient Greece Start to Develop?
• What Role Did Tribalism and Racism Play in Ancient Greece?
• How Does Ancient Greece Still Impact the World Today?
• Which Idea of Ancient Greece Is Still Used Today?
• What Are 5 Interesting Facts About Ancient Greece?
• Did Ancient Greece Change the World?
• What Activities Were Women Allowed to Do in Ancient Greece?
• Was the Culture of Ancient Greece Unique and What Made It So?
• How Many Gods Did Ancient Greece Have?
• What Were the Two Most Powerful City-States in Ancient Greece?
• How Long Did People of Ancient Greece Live?
• What Type of Play in Ancient Greece Was About Everyday Life and Made People Laugh?
• What Happened a Month Before the Olympic Games Were to Be Held in Ancient Greece?
• How Did the Religion of Ancient Greece Influence the Modern World?
• What Is the Most Important Legacy of Ancient Greece?

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StudyCorgi. (2022, June 5). 123 Ancient Greece Essay Topics. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/ancient-greece-essay-topics/

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These essay examples and topics on Ancient Greece were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 20, 2024 .

Points About Ancient Greek History

Major Topics in Ancient Greek History You Should Know

• Figures & Events
• Ancient Languages
• Mythology & Religion
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• M.A., Linguistics, University of Minnesota
• B.A., Latin, University of Minnesota

Greece, now a country in the Aegean, was a collection of independent city-states or poleis in antiquity that we know about archaeologically from the Bronze Age on. These poleis fought among one another and against bigger external forces, especially the Persians. Eventually, they were conquered by their neighbors to the north and then later became part of the Roman Empire. After the western Roman Empire fell, the Greek-speaking area of the Empire continued until 1453, when it fell to the Turks.

The Lay of the Land - Geography of Greece

Greece, a country in southeastern Europe whose peninsula extends from the Balkans into the Mediterranean Sea, is mountainous, with many gulfs and bays. Some areas of Greece are filled with forests. Much of Greece is stony and suitable only for pasturage, but other areas are suitable for growing wheat, barley, citrus, dates, and olives.

Prehistory: Before Greek Writing

Prehistoric Greece includes that period known to us through archaeology rather than writing. The Minoans and Mycenaeans with their bullfights and labyrinths come from this period. The Homeric epics—the Iliad and the Odyssey—describe valiant heroes and kings from the prehistoric Bronze Age of Greece. After the Trojan Wars, the Greeks were shuffled around the peninsula because of invaders the Greeks called Dorians.

• What Are the Letters of the Greek Alphabet?
• An Introduction to the Development of the Greek Alphabet

Greek Colonies

There were two main periods of colonial expansion among the ancient Greeks. The first was in the Dark Ages when the Greeks thought the Dorians invaded. See Dark Age Migrations . The second period of colonization began in the 8th century when Greeks founded cities in southern Italy and Sicily. The Achaeans founded Sybaris was an Achaean colony perhaps founded in 720 B.C. The Achaeans also founded Croton. Corinth was the mother city of Syracuse. The territory in Italy colonized by the Greeks was known as Magna Graecia (Great Greece). Greeks also settled colonies northward up to the Black (or Euxine) Sea.

Greeks set up colonies for many reasons, including trade and to provide land for the landless. They held close ties to the mother city.

The Social Groups of Early Athens

Early Athens had the household or oikos as its basic unit. There were also progressively larger groups, genos, phratry, and tribe. Three phratries formed a tribe (or phylai) headed by a tribal king. The earliest known function of the tribes was military. They were corporate bodies with their own priests and officials, as well as military and administrative units. There were four original tribes in Athens.

• Archaic Greece
• Classical Greece

The Acropolis - Athens' Fortified Hilltop

The civic life of ancient Athens was in the agora, like the Romans' forum. The Acropolis housed the temple of the patron goddess Athena, and had, since early times, been a protected area. Long walls extending to the harbor prevented the Athenians from starving in case they were besieged.

Democracy Evolves in Athens

Originally kings ruled the Greek states, but as they urbanized, the kings were replaced by a rule by the nobles, an oligarchy. In Sparta, the kings remained, possibly because they didn't have too much power since the power was split in 2, but elsewhere the kings were replaced.

Land Shortage was among the precipitating factors leading to the rise of democracy in Athens. So was the rise of the non-equestrian army. Cylon and Draco helped create a uniform law code for all Athenians that furthered the progress to democracy. Then came the poet-politician Solon , who set up a constitution, followed by Cleisthenes , who had to iron out the problems Solon left behind, and in the process increased from 4 to 10 the number of tribes.

Sparta - The Military Polis

Sparta started with small city-states (poleis) and tribal kings, like Athens, but it developed differently. It forced the native population on the neighboring land to work for the Spartans, and it maintained kings alongside an aristocratic oligarchy. The fact that it had two kings may have been what saved the institution since each king could have prevented the other from becoming too abusive of his power. Sparta was known for its lack of luxury and physically strong population. It was also known as the one place in Greece where women had some power and could own property.

The Greco-Persian Wars - Persian Wars Under Xerxes and Darius

The Persian Wars are usually dated 492-449/448 B.C. However, a conflict started between the Greek poleis in Ionia and the Persian Empire before 499 B.C. There were two mainland invasions of Greece, in 490 (under King Darius) and 480-479 B.C. (under King Xerxes). The Persian Wars ended with the Peace of Callias of 449, but by this time, and as a result of actions taken in Persian War battles, Athens had developed her own empire. Conflict mounted between the Athenians and the allies of Sparta. This conflict would lead to the Peloponnesian War.

Greeks were also involved in ​the conflict with the Persians when they hired on as mercenaries of King Cyrus (401-399) and Persians aided the Spartans during the Peloponnesian War.

The Peloponnesian League was an alliance of mostly the city-states of the Peloponnese led by Sparta . Formed in the 6th century, it became one of the two sides fighting during the Peloponnesian War (431-404).

The Peloponnesian War - Greek Against Greek

The Peloponnesian War (431-404) was fought between two groups of Greek allies. One was the Peloponnesian League, which had Sparta as its leader and included Corinth. The other leader was Athens who had control of the Delian League. The Athenians lost, putting an effective end to the Classical Age of Greece. Sparta dominated the Greek world.

Thucydides and Xenophon are the major contemporary sources on the Peloponnesian War.

Philip and Alexander the Great - Macedonian Conquerors of Greece

Philip II (382 - 336 B.C.) with his son Alexander the Great conquered the Greeks and expanded the empire, taking Thrace, Thebes, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Egypt, and on to the Punjab, in northern India. Alexander founded possibly more than 70 cities throughout the Mediterranean region and east to India, spreading trade and the culture of the Greeks wherever he went.

When Alexander the Great died, his empire was divided into ​three parts: Macedonia and Greece, ruled by Antigonus, founder of the Antigonid dynasty; the Near East, ruled by Seleucus , founder of the Seleucid dynasty ; and Egypt, where the general Ptolemy started the Ptolemid dynasty. The empire was wealthy thanks to the conquered Persians. With this wealth, building and other cultural programs were established in each region

Macedonian Wars - Rome Gains Power Over Greece

Greece was at odds with Macedonia, again, and sought the help of the budding Roman Empire. It came, helped them get rid of the northern menace, but when they were called back repeatedly, their policy gradually changed and Greece became part of the Roman Empire.

Byzantine Empire - The Greek Roman Empire

The fourth-century A.D. Roman emperor Constantine established a capital city in Greece, at Constantinople or Byzantium. When the Roman Empire "fell" in the following century, only the western emperor Romulus Augustulus was deposed. The Byzantine Greek-speaking part of the empire continued until it fell to the Ottoman Turks about a millennium later in 1453.

• 30 Maps of Ancient Greece Show How a Country Became an Empire
• Rise to Power of Sparta
• Political Aspects of the Classical Age of Greece
• The Peloponnesian War: Causes of the Conflict
• Formation of the Delian League
• 7 Points to Know About Ancient Greek Government
• A Short Summary of the Persian Wars
• Major Events in Ancient History
• The Thirty Tyrants After the Peloponnesian War
• Biography of Alcibiades, Ancient Greek Soldier-Politician
• Timeline of the Persian Wars 492-449
• Greece - Fast Facts About Greece
• The Start of the Persian Wars
• How Athenian Democracy Developed in 7 Stages
• The Heroes of Ancient Greece and Rome
• The Age of Pericles and Periclean Athens

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 2.

• Classical Greece
• The Greek polis
• State-building: the Greek polis
• Greco Persian Wars
• Second Persian Invasion
• Classical Greek Society and Culture
• Philosophy: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
• Classical Greek society

Classical Greek culture

• Classical Greek culture and society
• Prelude to the Peloponnesian War
• The Peloponnesian War

• The Greeks made important contributions to philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.
• Literature and theatre was an important aspect of Greek culture and influenced modern drama.
• The Greeks were known for their sophisticated sculpture and architecture.
• Greek culture influenced the Roman Empire and many other civilizations, and it continues to influence modern cultures today.

Philosophy and science

Art, literature, and theatre, the legacy of greek culture, want to join the conversation.

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Twelve Research Paper Ideas on Ancient Greece

Ancient Greece is a popular field of study for many disciplines, especially art and history. In fact, depending on your discipline, you may be asked to write a research paper. If so, where can you begin? Well, here are a few ideas to inspire you.

• Religion and Gods

If you’ve spent any time reading about the Greeks, you’ve likely heard a little about the expansive pantheon of Greek gods. From folklore to holidays to religious customs, there’s a lot to go off on. Consider why certain gods were worshipped and how the culture of the ancient Greeks was influenced by their religion or vice versa.

From the lyre to the aulos, music was a major part of life on the Balkan peninsula and formed a rich tradition. How was music a part of daily life? How important was it? It’s always worth a look.

The Romans came centuries after the ancient Greeks as we knew them. But understanding how Grecian culture affected cultures such as the Romans or even the United States is something historians have been trying to understand for years. How big of an influence they had may be worth a look.

• Gender Relations

How were men and women treated differently in Grecian society? This is always worth a look.

• The Trojan Wars

It’s a popular topic for epic poetry and research. Look into the history of the Trojan wars. From the real-life factions involved to how the war was later interpreted in later times, the Trojan War offers plenty of opportunity for research.

The Balkan Peninsula and surrounding islands is famous for their unique geography. How did this affect the Ancient Greeks? This can provide plenty of insight into their unique culture.

• Grecian Governments

How were they organized and structured? By examining individual cultures on the Balkan Peninsula, this can also provide valuable insight on the history of the cultures that existed there.

One unfortunate aspect of Grecian life was the use of slave labor. How did slavery affect local culture? Read into the history of the helots, a particular war slave that was used by the Spartans. There’s a lot of fascinating potential for a research paper.

Figures such as Socrates and Aristotle figure prominently during this time period. What kind of an impact did they have? How were their ideas influenced by the culture around them?

• The Minoans

This was another prominent culture around this time period and it figures into popular myths such as the story of the Labyrinth. But few historians know the whole story about the ancient Minoans. There’s a lot of potential here.

There’s no denying that this was a period of time featuring lots of conflict. Why did many of these conflicts and wars begin? Take a look.

Literature is an important field of study in many cultures. So turn your attention to the Ancient Greeks. Examining what influenced their poetry and literature is a fascinating field of study.

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Tragic Tales and Epic Adventures: Essay Topics in Greek Mythology

Table of contents

• 1 Tips on Writing an Informative Essay on a Greek Mythical Character
• 2.1 Titles for Hero Essays 
• 2.2 Ancient Greece Research Topics
• 2.3 Common Myth Ideas for Essays
• 2.4 Topics about Greek Gods
• 2.5 Love Topics in the Essay about Greek Mythology

With its rich pantheon of gods, heroes, and timeless tales, Greek mythology has been a source of inspiration and fascination for centuries. From the mighty exploits of Hercules to the cunning of Odysseus, these myths offer a window into ancient Greek culture, values, and understanding of the world. This exploration delves into various aspects of Greek mythology topics, providing a wealth of ideas for a captivating essay. How do myths impact today’s society? Whether you’re drawn to the legendary heroes, the powerful gods, or the intricate relationships within these stories, there’s a trove of ideas to explore in Greek mythology research topics.

Tips on Writing an Informative Essay on a Greek Mythical Character

Crafting an informative essay on a Greek mythical character requires a blend of passionate storytelling, rigorous research, and insightful analysis. Yet, there are some tips you can follow to reach the best result. Read this student essay written about the Greek mythology guide.

• Select a Fascinating Character. Choose a Greek mythical character that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the character will enhance your writing and engage your readers.
• Conduct Thorough Research. Dive into the character’s background, roles in various myths, and their significance in Greek mythology. Use reliable sources such as academic papers, respected mythology books, and scholarly articles to gather comprehensive and accurate information.
• Analyze Characteristics and Symbolism. Explore the deeper meanings behind your character’s actions and traits. Discuss what they symbolize in Greek culture and mythology.
• Use a Clear Structure. Organize your essay logically. Ensure each paragraph flows smoothly to the next, maintaining a coherent and compelling narrative.
• Incorporate Quotes and References. Use quotes from primary sources and reference key scholars to support your points. This adds credibility and depth to your essay.
• Edit and Revise. Finally, thoroughly revise your essay for clarity, coherence, and grammatical accuracy. A well-edited essay ensures your ideas are conveyed effectively.

By following these tips, you can create a compelling essay that recounts famous myths and explores the rich symbolic and cultural significance of these timeless tales.

Greek Mythology Topics for an Essay

Explore the rich tapestry of Greek mythology ideas with these intriguing essay topics, encompassing legendary heroes, ancient gods, and the timeless themes that have captivated humanity for millennia. Dive into the stories of Hercules, the wisdom of Athena, the complexities of Olympian deities, and the profound lessons embedded in these ancient tales. Each topic offers a unique window into the world of Greek myths, inviting a deep exploration of its cultural and historical significance.

Titles for Hero Essays  

• Hercules: Heroism and Humanity 
• Achilles: The Warrior’s Tragedy
• Odysseus: Cunning over Strength
• Theseus and the Minotaur: Symbolism and Society
• Perseus and Medusa: A Tale of Courage
• Jason and the Argonauts: The Quest for the Golden Fleece
• Atalanta: Challenging Gender Roles
• Ajax: The Unsung Hero of the Trojan War
• Bellerophon and Pegasus: Conquest of the Skies
• Hector: The Trojan Hero
• Diomedes: The Underrated Warrior of the Iliad
• Heracles and the Twelve Labors: A Journey of Redemption
• Orpheus: The Power of Music and Love
• Castor and Pollux: The Gemini Twins
• Philoctetes: The Isolated Warrior

Ancient Greece Research Topics

• The Trojan War: Myth and History. Examining the blending of mythological and historical elements in the story of the Trojan War.
• The Role of Oracles in Ancient Greek Society. Exploring how oracles influenced decision-making and everyday life in Ancient Greece.
• Greek Mythology in Classical Art and Literature. Analyzing the representation and influence of Greek myths in classical art forms and literary works.
• The Historical Impact of Greek Gods on Ancient Civilizations. Investigating how the worship of Greek gods shaped the societal, cultural, and political landscapes of ancient civilizations.
• Mythology’s Influence on Ancient Greek Architecture. Studying the impact of mythological themes and figures on the architectural designs of Ancient Greece.
• Athenian Democracy and Mythology. Exploring the connections between the development of democracy in Athens and the city’s rich mythological traditions.
• Minoan Civilization and Greek Mythology. Delving into the influence of Greek mythology on the Minoan civilization, particularly in their art and religious practices.
• The Mycenaean Origins of Greek Myths. Tracing the roots of Greek mythology back to the Mycenaean civilization and its culture.
• Greek Mythology and the Development of Theater. Discuss how mythological stories and characters heavily influenced ancient Greek plays.
• Olympic Games and Mythological Foundations. Examining the mythological origins of the ancient Olympic Games and their cultural significance.
• Maritime Myths and Ancient Greek Navigation. Investigating how Greek myths reflected and influenced ancient Greek seafaring and exploration.
• The Impact of Hellenistic Culture on Mythology. Analyzing how Greek mythology evolved and spread during the Hellenistic period.
• Alexander the Great and Mythological Imagery. Studying the use of mythological symbolism and imagery in portraying Alexander the Great.
• Greek Gods in Roman Culture. Exploring how Greek mythology was adopted and adapted by the Romans.
• Spartan Society and Mythological Ideals. Examining Greek myths’ role in shaping ancient Sparta’s values and lifestyle.

Common Myth Ideas for Essays

• The Concept of Fate and Free Will in Greek Myths. Exploring how Greek mythology addresses the tension between destiny and personal choice.
• Mythological Creatures and Their Meanings. Analyzing the symbolism and cultural significance of creatures like the Minotaur, Centaurs, and the Hydra.
• The Underworld in Greek Mythology: A Journey Beyond. Delving into the Greek concept of the afterlife and the role of Hades.
• The Role of Women in Greek Myths. Examining the portrayal of female characters, goddesses, and heroines in Greek mythology.
• The Transformation Myths in Greek Lore. Investigating stories of metamorphosis and their symbolic meanings, such as Daphne and Narcissus.
• The Power of Prophecies in Greek Myths. Discussing the role and impact of prophetic declarations in Greek mythological narratives.
• Heroism and Hubris in Greek Mythology. Analyzing how pride and arrogance are depicted and punished in various myths.
• The Influence of Greek Gods in Human Affairs. Exploring stories where gods intervene in the lives of mortals, shaping their destinies.
• Nature and the Gods: Depictions of the Natural World. Examining how natural elements and phenomena are personified through gods and myths.
• The Significance of Sacrifice in Greek Myths. Investigating the theme of voluntary and forced sacrifice in mythological tales.
• Greek Mythology as a Reflection of Ancient Society. Analyzing how Greek myths mirror ancient Greek society’s social, political, and moral values.
• Mythical Quests and Adventures. Exploring the journeys and challenges heroes like Jason, Perseus, and Theseus face.
• The Origins of the Gods in Greek Mythology. Tracing the creation stories and familial relationships among the Olympian gods.
• Lessons in Morality from Greek Myths. Discussing the moral lessons and ethical dilemmas presented in Greek mythology.
• The Influence of Greek Myths on Modern Culture. Examining how elements of Greek mythology continue to influence contemporary literature, film, and art.

Topics about Greek Gods

• Zeus: King of Gods. Exploring Zeus’s leadership in Olympus, his divine relationships, and mortal interactions.
• Athena: Goddess of Wisdom and War. Analyzing Athena’s embodiment of intellect and battle strategy in myths.
• Apollo vs. Dionysus: Contrast of Sun and Ecstasy. Comparing Apollo’s rationality with Dionysus’s chaotic joy.
• Hera: Marriage and Jealousy. Examining Hera’s multifaceted nature, focusing on her matrimonial role and jealous tendencies.
• Poseidon: Ruler of Seas and Quakes. Investigating Poseidon’s dominion over the oceans and seismic events.
• Hades: Lord of the Underworld. Delving into Hades’s reign in the afterlife and associated myths.
• Aphrodite: Essence of Love and Charm. Exploring Aphrodite’s origins, romantic tales, and divine allure.
• Artemis: Protector of Wilderness. Discussing Artemis’s guardianship over nature and young maidens.
• Hephaestus: Craftsmanship and Fire. Analyzing Hephaestus’s skills in metallurgy and his divine role.
• Demeter: Goddess of Harvest and Seasons. Investigating Demeter’s influence on agriculture and seasonal cycles.
• Ares: Embodiment of Warfare. Delving into Ares’s aggressive aspects and divine relations.
• Hermes: Divine Messenger and Trickster. Exploring Hermes’s multifaceted roles in Olympian affairs.
• Dionysus: Deity of Revelry and Wine. Analyzing Dionysus’s cultural impact and festive nature.
• Persephone: Underworld’s Queen. Discussing Persephone’s underworld journey and dual existence.
• Hercules: From Hero to God. Examining Hercules’s legendary labors and deification.

Love Topics in the Essay about Greek Mythology

• Orpheus and Eurydice’s Tragedy. Analyzing their poignant tale of love, loss, and music.
• Aphrodite’s Influence. Exploring her role as the embodiment of love and beauty.
• Zeus’s Love Affairs. Investigating Zeus’s romantic escapades and their effects.
• Eros and Psyche’s Journey. Delving into their story of trust, betrayal, and love’s victory.
• Love and Desire in Myths. Discussing the portrayal and impact of love in Greek myths.
• Hades and Persephone’s Love. Analyzing their complex underworld relationship.
• Paris and Helen’s Romance. Examining their affair’s role in sparking the Trojan War.
• Pygmalion and Galatea’s Tale. Exploring the theme of transcendent artistic love.
• Alcestis and Admetus’s Sacrifice. Investigating the implications of Alcestis’s self-sacrifice.
• Apollo’s Unrequited Love for Daphne. Discussing unreciprocated love and transformation.
• Hercules and Deianira’s Tragic Love. Exploring their love story and its tragic conclusion.
• Jason and Medea’s Turmoil. Analyzing their intense, betrayal-marred relationship.
• Cupid and Psyche’s Resilience. Delving into the strength of their love.
• Baucis and Philemon’s Reward. Exploring their love’s reward by the gods.
• Achilles and Patroclus’s Bond. Discussing their deep connection and its wartime impact.

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Greek Mythology & Modern Culture: Reshaping Aesthetic Tastes

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A special issue of Humanities (ISSN 2076-0787).

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Dear Colleagues,

Much of the Western world has a rising problem with white nationalists. These white supremacists often co-opt fields like Classics, medievalism, and Norse mythology to support their racist ideologies—twisting these disciplines and repressing or ignoring evidence for the multicultural and multiracial realities of the ancient and medieval world. In terms of Classics, these distortions and appropriations have been documented by an emerging generation of scholars like Donna Zuckerberg, Dan-el Padilla Peralta, Curtis Dozier, Sarah Bond, and others. Ancient myth, literature, and symbols continue to pervade modern culture.

In particular, Greek myth continues to shape modern worldviews, influence contemporary artists and writers, and appeal to our literary and aesthetic tastes. However, understandings of Greek myth—both in its original context and its reception by later generations—have changed dramatically over time. This special issue of Humanities seeks articles about current research in Greek mythology. Submissions should present cutting edge research about an aspect of Greek myth, prepared for a general audience. 

Dr. Phillip Zapkin Prof. Dr. Kevin Wetmore Guest Editors

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HIS 4328: History of Ancient Greece and Rome: Greek Topics

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Ancient Greece, at its peak in the fourth century BCE, fostered Homeric ideals of heroism that inspired writers and philosophers of the classical age to portray the human condition against the world’s uncertainties. Greek contributions in science, philosophy, art, literature, religion, and politics thus spread far and wide. European humanists in the fourteenth century revived interest in Greek culture and ideals, which still color contemporary thought.

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The civilization of ancient Greece twice effected important changes in world cultural balances, first when Alexander of Macedon (Alexander the Great, 356–323 BCE) conquered a vast empire in western Asia, Egypt, and northwest India, spreading Greek ideas and customs far and wide, and a second time, beginning about l400 CE, when well-to-do citizens first in Italy and then also in northwestern Europe found that ancient Greek literature provided a useful guide and enrichment for their own lives.

What made Greek patterns of civilization so attractive was that for a few generations a handful of Greek cities mobilized intense and widespread popular participation in politics and war, while also combining monumental public art with market economics. They called this unusual mix “freedom,” and the literary expressions of Greek freedom in poetry, history, and philosophy appealed to intellectually restless citizens in other times and places as both admirable and practical. Freedom continues to figure in contemporary politics, so the Greek example still echoes in our public affairs, though less strongly than it did before 1914, when the study of Greek (and Latin) literature dominated the schooling of Europe’s political leaders and many of those who supported them. Revival of the Olympic Games in 1896 was a late example of how ancient Greece continued to offer a model for Europeans to emulate, and by now Olympic competition has become worldwide.

The Rise of Ancient Greece

How did ancient Greece achieve its distinctive character? For more than a thousand years after 2000 BCE, when Greek-speaking invaders began to filter in from the north, changes in Greece closely paralleled what was happening elsewhere. The initial invasions, for example, were part of a general expansion of herdsmen from the grassy steppes of Eurasia that brought Aryans to India, Persians to Iran, Hittites to Anatolia, and Slavs, Germans, Latins, and Celts to other parts of Europe. The newcomers had the advantage of warlike habits arising from the necessity of protecting their flocks and herds from raiders and from attacking neighbors in retaliation. Moreover, these warrior tribesmen had a superior diet, thanks to the milk and milk products they consumed, making them bigger and stronger than the grain farmers they displaced.

Dry summers prevail in most of Greece and are bad for grass, so the invaders had to depend more on grain farming and to cut back on herding by sending flocks to high mountain pastures in summer. This brought Greek society into line with the contemporary scene in western Asia, where steppe invaders had overrun somewhat larger populations of farmers and the urban centers they supported. Accordingly, by about 1600 BCE, closer encounters with centers of civilization in Crete, Egypt, and western Asia brought familiarity with royal government, bronze weapons and armor, chariots, writing, and monumental stone construction to Greece. Mycenae became the principal seat of wealth and power, where a massive lion gate and large beehive tombs attest to the greatness of the kings for whom they were built. Rural taxpayers, sometimes conscripted for work on such buildings, together with booty from sea raids along the shores of the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean sustained the kings of Mycenae and rulers of a handful of similar fortress-palaces in other parts of Greece. But chariots as well as bronze weapons and armor were scarce and expensive, so fully equipped warriors remained very few. Hence, about 1200 BCE, when a second wave of Greek-speaking invaders, known as Dorians, armed with comparatively cheap and abundant iron weapons, advanced from the north, the superior number of their fighting men overwhelmed the old order of society. The newcomers promptly destroyed and abandoned Mycenae and the other palace-fortresses of Greece.

The Homeric Ideal of Individual Heroism

With these invasions, a ruder, more egalitarian age dawned. Writing disappeared, so did monumental building. But bards who recited their poems to the sound of a lyre kept memories of the Mycenaean past at least dimly alive, especially among descendants of pre-Dorian Greek-speakers, known as Ionians. Soon after 700 BCE Homer gave lasting form to this oral tradition by composing a pair of epic poems. One, the Iliad, described a critical episode during a sea raid that Agamemnon, King of Mycenae, perhaps (even probably), led against the city of Troy; its twin, the Odyssey, recounted the perilous return of Odysseus from Troy to his home in Ithaca. Homer’s poems were soon written down in a new alphabetic script imported (with adjustments) from Phoenicia, and they became fundamental to subsequent Greek assumptions and ideas about how men ought to behave. Homer’s heroes seek and attain glory by risking death in war, knowing ahead of time that sooner or later they will be defeated and die. Moreover, according to Homer, the gods play games with men, favoring some, defeating others whimsically; yet the very fact that the gods were immortal meant that they could not be truly heroic by risking life and limb. Instead, according to Homer, they were often merely spiteful and were ultimately subject to Fate—the nature of things—mysteriously spun out in detail by enigmatic, silent supernatural beings. Oddly, therefore, by risking everything, heroic humans surpassed the gods, at least morally, while sharing with them a common subordination to Fate.

This unusual twist diminished the power of priests and conventional religion among the ancient Greeks and opened a path to all sorts of speculation seeking to anatomize Fate and penetrate more deeply into the nature of things, including, ere long, the nature of human society and of morals. No other ancient civilization centered so much on merely human affairs or unleashed human imagination and reasoning from sacred traditions so recklessly. That is why in later times urban populations among whom local versions of sacred doctrine had worn thin from too many encounters with persons of different religious background so often found Greek high culture powerfully attractive.

From Individual to Collective Heroism

The civilization of ancient Greece further enhanced its attractiveness when Homeric heroism was transformed from an individual, personal pursuit into collective heroism in defense of small city-states, into which ancient Greece eventually divided. Greek city-states had their own complex development from older migratory and tribal forms of society. Ionian Greeks, fleeing from Dorian invaders across the Aegean to found new settlements on the coast of modern Turkey, led the way. Kinship ties crumbled among haphazard groups of refugees, who consequently had to improvise new ways of keeping peace and order among themselves. Elected magistrates, holding office for a limited time (usually one year) and administering laws agreed upon by an assembly of male citizens, proved maximally effective. When such self-governing communities began to thrive and, after about 750 BCE, started to found similar new cities in Sicily, southern Italy, and around the shores of the northern Aegean and Black Sea, an enlarged Greek world began to emerge, held together by shipping and trade, a more or less common language and the distinctive public institutions of the polis, to use the Greek term for a locally sovereign city-state.

In ancient Greece proper, the polis supplanted older kinship arrangements much more slowly. In the wake of the Dorian invasions, as people settled down to farm the same fields year after year, local hereditary kings, assisted by councils of noble landowners, began to emerge. They much resembled contemporary local rulers of western Asia. Population growth soon provoked a painful process of differentiation between noble landowners and dependent rent- and tax-paying peasants. This process went unchecked in Asia and quickly led to the emergence of new empires and kingdoms, like the biblical kingdom of David. In ancient Greece, however, for something like three hundred years, a different pattern prevailed.

Military and Economic Power of Ancient Greece

The critical difference hinged on the emergence of phalanx warfare among the Greeks. Beginning about 650 BCE, well-armored farmers, trained to keep in line so each man’s shield helped to protect the man next to him, proved superior to disorganized personal combat of the sort Homer had celebrated. When such men, equipped with spears and swords, arrayed themselves six ranks deep to form what the Greeks called a phalanx, their concerted charge easily swept less disciplined and closely packed opponents before it. Once this simple tactic proved uniformly successful, every Greek city had to maintain and if possible increase the size of its phalanx to be able to protect itself against its neighbors.

Since fighting farmers had to arm themselves for the phalanx with income from the family farm, radical steps were necessary to prevent them from losing their land by going into debt to richer landowners. In Sparta, a (perhaps mythical) lawgiver named Lycourgos(Lycurgus)was credited with setting up a system of military training that required the “equals,” as Spartan citizens officially called themselves, to live in barracks between the ages of 20 and 30, practicing military skills and eating together. Family life became correspondingly marginal. Conquered helots in neighboring Messenia supplied the equals with the food they consumed, so Spartan citizens, specialized for war, became an unusual kind of upper class by exploiting the helots collectively. Prolonged military training soon made the Spartan phalanx superior to others, and by 490 BCE Spartans had compelled most other city-states of southern Greece to become their allies.

Athens, the other city whose internal history mattered most in later times, never attained internal stability to compare with Sparta’s under the Lycourgan constitution. In 594 BCE, for example, Solon, after being elected chief magistrate with extraordinary powers, set out to check the decay of the Athenian phalanx by canceling debts and prohibiting debt slavery. But Solon’s efforts to invoke justice and “good law” did not make friction between rich and poor disappear. Half a century later a noble usurper, Peisistratus, seized power by force of arms and with popular support, then exiled his rivals so that his sons retained control until 510 BCE. Two years after their forcible overthrow, another nobleman, Cleisthenes, instituted a more democratic regime in Athens. Rivalry between democratic Athens and Sparta’s mix of radical equality among a citizen elite and harsh repression of disfranchised helots became overt only after the Persian invasion (490–489 BCE), when a precarious alliance of about twenty Greek cities, led by Sparta, managed to defeat the imperial army of perhaps sixty thousand men that Xerxes I, king of Persia and ruler of the largest empire Asia had yet seen, led against them. This surprising victory proved to the historian Herodotus (d. c. 425 BCE) that free men, obedient to law, fought willingly and therefore better than unfree Persians subjected to a king. More generally, the victory gave an enormous fillip to Greek self-confidence and inaugurated what in retrospect seemed a golden age of creativity, concentrated especially in Athens.

At the time, however, uncertainty and divided councils prevailed and ceaseless warfare continued to disturb civil society. Those who lived through that tumult would surely be surprised to know how reverently later generations looked up to their accomplishments. For in Athens, self-government by elected magistrates and an assembly in which all citizens could vote provoked perpetual dispute, and war mobilization required ever increasing effort. New thoughts and new dilemmas distracted people in private and public life, while sculpture, architecture, drama, history and philosophy all attained what later generations recognized as classical expression.

This remarkable efflorescence of Greek, and especially of Athenian, civilization was sustained by an expanding market economy. Greek cities began to mint silver, copper, and even iron coins in small denominations, so everyone could buy and sell items of common consumption. Expanding markets, in turn, allowed specialized producers to achieve new levels of efficiency, thus enriching society at large. The most significant of these was specialized farming of olives (for oil) and of grapes (for wine). Beginning not long before 600 BCE, production of wine and oil for sale spread ever more widely through southern and central Greece, wherever climate and soil allowed. That was because olive oil and wine commanded a ready market throughout the Mediterranean and Black Sea coastlands, where barbarian chieftains mobilized local peoples to supply grain, fish, timber, and other raw materials in exchange for the wine and oil they desired. For a long time terms of trade strongly favored the Greeks, so that the yield from an acre of land under vines or olive trees could be exchanged for far more grain than the same land in Greece could produce. As a result, throughout the classical age commercially specialized farming in Greece sustained free and more or less equal citizens far more comfortably (and in larger numbers) than could have been done by raising their own grain locally. In western Asia cities drew grain from their immediate hinterlands in the form of unrequited rents and taxes, but in ancient Greece ships allowed cities to draw grain and other resources from far greater distances, in return for the oil and wine their farmer-citizens brought to market each year.

Export of specialized artisan products—decorated Greek vases for example—supplemented this fundamental agricultural and raw-materials pattern of exchange. Artisans, too, specialized and rapidly improved the quality and quantity of their output. Thus, for a few generations, increasing wealth and skill concentrated in a few commercial cities, of which Athens was the most active. Eventually, when farmers in other parts of the Mediterranean learned how to raise olives and vines, Greeks lost their initial advantage. Greek rural prosperity waned correspondingly, and the expansive buoyancy of the classical age, when Greek population and wealth grew steadily, soon faded away. Yet it was political contradictions inherent in polis ideals of heroism and justice that brought an abrupt end to the Greek classical age in 338 BCE, when a semibarbarian conqueror, Philip of Macedon, deprived Greek cites of their cherished freedom. Until then, Greek freedom triumphed on every front, restlessly, ruthlessly, amazingly.

Athens Ascendant

Immediately after their victory over the Persians, Athens and Sparta went their separate ways. Athens had played a conspicuously heroic part in the Persian War. When Xerxes overran their city, Athenians fled to the island of Salamis nearby and refused to surrender. Athenian triremes (the specialized Greek fighting ship that relied on rams, affixed to the ships’ prows, to sink enemy ships) then helped to defeat the Persian fleet in the straits separating Salamis from the Attic mainland (480 BCE), compelling Xerxes to withdraw from Greece with most of his army before the Persian remnant suffered final defeat at Plataea the next year. Thereupon, the Athenians chose to keep their fleet in action and continued the war by sending naval expeditions to liberate Greek cities from Persian rule around the shores of the Aegean and beyond. Peace did not come until 448 BCE, by which time Athens had built an empire, first freeing cities from the Persians and then taxing them to help support the Athenian fleet that “liberated” them. Spartans at first held back, fearful of helot revolt at home and dismayed by the sudden surge of Athenian power.

Within Athens, the fleet’s annual campaigns swiftly altered internal balances. Citizens whose surplus younger sons lacked enough land to be able to buy armor and serve in the phalanx now had an attractive way to make ends meet by rowing in the fleet for a small wage, supplemented every so often by hauls of booty. In winter, when the fleet went ashore and stayed home, they were free to attend meetings of the assembly, whereas farmers, scattered across Attica, only attended when an unusual crisis arose. This gave a decisive advantage to property-less citizens and assured continuation of the aggressive overseas ventures upon which they had come to depend for a living. For a couple of generations, farmers served contentedly in the phalanx in summer when there was no work to be done in the fields, while a few wealthy aristocrats went along with the democracy, playing their own specialized part by refraining from conspicuous consumption in private life and competing instead for the honor of using their wealth for various public purposes, like equipping a trireme or financing one of the tragic performances that honored the god Dionysos (Dionysus).

Despite rapid population growth, Athenian citizens remained comparatively few. War losses were substantial, and about a dozen colonies, dispatched to consolidate their emerging empire, also removed several thousand landless citizens. At the city’s maximum, in 431 BCE, adult male citizens numbered somewhere between 35,000 and 50,000, of whom as many as 20,000 drew salaries from the state for rowing in the fleet and for other forms of public service, such as serving on juries in the law courts. The total population of Attica was probably between 250,000 and 350,000 persons, almost half of whom were disfranchised foreigners and slaves. So as in Sparta, many though not all Athenian citizens had become militarized “equals,” disciplined to row and maneuver their triremes more swiftly and accurately than others, just as years of training allowed Spartan soldiers to prevail on land.

While the Athenian democracy thus concentrated on warfare, trade and artisan work fell mainly into the hands of resident foreigners. Slaves, too, played an important economic role as miners of newly discovered veins of silver ore in Attica. Silver from those mines financed the two hundred Athenian triremes that fought at Salamis; the mines also supplied silver for the Attic drachmae that soon became a standard currency throughout most of the Mediterranean coastlands.

Athens’s combination of economic and military power, based on oil and wine exports, other far-ranging market exchanges, and the personal participation in war by farmer-soldiers in the phalanx and landless rowers in the fleet, was unmatched elsewhere. Athenian polis-wide collaboration always remained somewhat precarious, but under Pericles, who dominated the city’s politics between 445 and 429 BCE, the Athenians indeed converted Homeric individual heroism into collective heroism on behalf of their polis. Rich and poor alike pursued honor more than personal gain, and their willing cooperation brought unusual success.

Yet that success was profoundly ambiguous, since victorious Athenians became collective tyrants, suppressing the freedom of others. Accordingly, most Greeks (including some Athenians) came to feel that Athenian democratic and imperial policies were profoundly unjust. Invoking the “freedom of the Greeks” against unjust tyrants, whether home grown or coming from abroad, became and remained a heartfelt protest, long after the enlarged scale of war had made the freedom of separate cities unsustainable.

The Peloponnesian Wars and the Coming of Philip

Sparta, where collective heroism dated back to Lycourgos, soon took the lead in challenging the emerging Athenian Empire. Two bouts of war ensued. The first, waged on and off between 460 and 445 BCE, turned out to be a draw; but the next Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE), as the Athenian historian Thucydides called it, ended in the overthrow of Athenian Empire and democracy. Yet the victorious Spartans were compromised from the start, as they prevailed only after accepting Persian money to finance the creation of the mercenary fleet they needed to defeat the Athenians at sea. The scale and intensity of these struggles altered Greek society very rapidly. Fighting became professionalized and commercialized; both Athens and Sparta hired troops and sailors from outside the polis to supplement armies and navies of citizens. Within Athens, rich and poor parted company when conspirators twice (411 and 404 BCE) overthrew the democracy. To be sure, democracy was soon restored in Athens, at least in form; but the solidarity between rich and poor in pursuit of collective greatness never came back. Instead, independent farmer-citizen-soldiers gave way to mercenaries, while Athens, and Greek society everywhere, divided more and more sharply between landowners and dependent tillers of the soil.

Simultaneously, commercial prosperity subsided as the Greeks lost their primacy in producing oil and wine for overseas markets. Politics changed to match, allowing larger landed property holders to monopolize what long remained vivacious political struggles among themselves at home and with neighboring cities. After 404 BCE, the victorious Spartans quickly became even more unpopular than Athenians had been, before meeting defeat in 371 BCE by the Thebans, who were in turn overthrown by Philip of Macedon in 338 BCE. To keep the peace, Philip made himself commander-in-chief of a Hellenic league of cities. His son, Alexander, after ruthlessly suppressing a revolt, led a combined Macedonian and Greek army against the Persians in 334 BCE. His victories brought the Persian Empire to an end, and after his death in 323 BCE, Macedonian generals set up kingdoms of their own in Egypt, Asia, and Macedon. Greek cities nominally regained their freedom but in fact remained bit players in continuing great power struggles until 31 BCE, when the Romans unified the entire Mediterranean coastline and its hinterlands in a more lasting empire.

Culture and Legacy of Ancient Greece

Long before 31 BCE, Athenian art and literature of the classical age, 480 to 338 BCE, had become familiar to wealthy Greeks everywhere. Precisely because the freedom of the polis was slipping away from their grasp, they cherished the Athenian literary heritage for showing how free men ought to conduct their affairs and lead a good life. Later on, Romans, too, shared a similar nostalgia, for their republican liberty was also a casualty of empire. Accordingly, Roman art and literature borrowed themes and ideas from their Greek predecessors, and the resulting amalgam was what, almost fourteen hundred years later, inspired Italian and other European humanists to revive ancient glories by teaching the young to read, admire, and emulate Greek and Roman literature and art.

The power and complexity of Greek thought, and its concentration in Athens between 490 and 338 BCE, remains amazing. Reason, imagination, doubt, hope, and fear all play their part in classical Greek literary exploration of the human condition. Fate, gods, and men interact, surprisingly, often inscrutably. Above all, classical Greek writers remained in thrall to Homer, portraying human beings heroically confronting the world’s uncertainties. Greek sculptors also portrayed both men and gods in heroic human form, and attained greater visual accuracy than art traditions of Asia or elsewhere had done before. Greek monumental architecture remained simple, featuring columnar facades and straight geometrical rooflines. But subtle curvature and proportion please modern eyes as much as they presumably did when first constructed. In later centuries, classical Greek styles of sculpture and architecture spread widely across Europe and Asia; they still affect many of our public buildings.

Religion in Ancient Greece

Yet there was more to the Greek cultural heritage than visual art, civic solidarity, and collective heroism. Rational argument, science, and philosophy burgeoned as well, rivaling traditional religious ritual and belief. This aspect of Greek society reflected the fact that religion in Greece had become a hodgepodge by the time written texts allow us to know anything about it. Ancient and secret fertility cults, like the one at Eleusis, promised eternal life to initiates. Such mysteries fitted awkwardly with Homer’s quarrelsome gods, living on top of Mount Olympus. In addition, Greeks engaged in ecstatic worship of Dionysos, god of wine, sought cures from Aesclapios (Asclepius) through dreams, and inquired about the future from oracles like that at Delphi, where fumes from the earth intoxicated the Pythia, making her babble in ways that priestly experts interpreted for inquiring visitors. The Greeks also honored the gods by stripping themselves naked to compete in athletic contests at Olympia and elsewhere at special festivals. This shocked others, but became a distinctive trait of Hellenism as it spread across western Asia in the wake of Alexander’s armies, rooting itself in new Greek-style cities founded by discharged veterans.

Philosophy in Ancient Greece

Nothing resembling a coherent worldview emerged from such confusion, and when Greeks began to buy and sell overseas, they encountered an even greater confusion of religious ideas and practices in Egypt, Asia, and more northerly lands. Polis magistrates could and did reconcile the irreconcilable in ritual fashion by sustaining traditional rites and in some cases elaborating on them, as happened in Athens with the development of dramatic festivals honoring Dionysos. Athenian playwrights, notably Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, used drama to explore moral and political issues. Although they advocated civic institutions like justice and moral courage as healthy alternatives to the violent uncertainties of human life, they never came near to making the world as a whole make sense. That was left to a handful of philosophers, who, beginning in Ionia with Thales of Miletus (d. c. 546 BCE), took the radical step of disregarding gods and spirits, surmising instead that just as men in the polis regulated their lives by invisible binding laws, nature too perhaps obeyed its own natural laws. Thales for example—perhaps drawing on Mesopotamian creation myths—said that everything came from water by rarification and condensation, with the difference that gods were erased, leaving water and other elements (earth, air, and fire) to behave lawfully. Others pursued this leap in the dark in different directions, proposing some notions that were destined to future significance, like the atomic theory of matter. Mathematics had special attraction for early Greek philosophers since geometrical demonstrations were logically certain and seemed universally true. Here, perhaps, was a model for natural law in general, of which polis law itself was only an instance. Pythagoras of Samos (d. c. 500 BCE) carried such ideas to an extreme. He founded a secret brotherhood that was soon forcibly dispersed, and taught that the world was made of numbers and that studying their harmonies might permit human souls to survive death through reincarnation. Only fragments remain from the sayings and writings of Pythagoras and other early Greek philosophers, so modern understanding of their efforts to make the world make sense remain very uncertain and imperfect.

Philosophical discussion turned increasingly to human affairs, with the intense controversies surrounding the rise of democracy. Not surprisingly, Athens became the principal center of debate. A school of sophists made their living by preparing young men for political careers, teaching them how to argue a case—any case—convincingly. Some sophists taught that right and wrong were merely human inventions. That in turn provoked others, of whom Socrates (d. 399 BCE) was the most influential, to argue that right and wrong, truth, beauty, honor, justice, and all the other ideas that citizens held dear, were unchanging and rooted in the nature of things, though Socrates was more successful in refuting those who disagreed with him than in explaining his own beliefs. Socrates wrote nothing, but his pupil Plato (d. 347 BCE) pursued the same effort by writing a long series of dialogues that survive for our inspection and continuing delight. Plato wanted to believe in a world of unchanging immaterial ideas that somehow guaranteed truth; but, to judge by his later dialogues, never entirely convinced himself that such a world existed. Nevertheless, Plato’s dialogues raised questions for subsequent philosophers to examine endlessly. In addition, by founding the Academy, where young men gathered for advanced study and debate, Plato set up a lasting institutional framework for ancient philosophy. His pupil, Aristotle (384–322 BCE), codified the rules of logic, and his other writings offered plausible answers to almost everything else his predecessors had argued about. Subsequent Greek and Roman philosophers continued to disagree until the Christian Emperor Justinian forcibly disbanded the Academy in 529 CE. All the same, pagan philosophers’ ideas provided an educated upper class of citizens in Hellenistic and Roman times with ready answers to a wide range of personal and scientific questions, independent of any sort of religious authority.

This body of learning—secular, rational, argumentative and complex—rivaled (and also suffused) later religious worldviews. It ranks among the most significant heritages passed on from Greek antiquity, for in later centuries Greek philosophy and natural science took on new life among both Muslims and Christians, and still colors contemporary thought.

In sum, science, philosophy, art, literature, war and politics throughout the world are still influenced by our complex and tangled heritage from ancient Greece.

Bibliography:

• Alcock, S., & Osborne, R. (Eds.). (1996). Placing the gods: Sanctuaries and sacred space in ancient Greece. Oxford, U.K.: Clarendon Press.
• Andrewes, A. (1992). Greek society. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Pelican Books.
• Boardman, J., Griffin, J., & Murray O. (Eds.). (1991). The Oxford history of Greece. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press.
• Dover, K. J. (1997). Ancient Greece: A political, social, and cultural history. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Ehrenberg, V. (1973). From Solon to Socrates: Greek history and civilization during the 6th and 5th centuries b.c. London: Routledge.
• Finley, M. I. (1982). The legacy of Greece: A new appraisal. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Finley, M. I., Shaw, B. D., & Saller, R. P. (1982). Economy and society in ancient Greece. New York: Viking.
• Forrest, W. H. (1966). The emergence of Greek democracy, 800– 400 b.c. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishers.
• Furley, D. & Allen, R. (Eds.). (1975). Studies in presocratic philosophy. New York: Routledge.
• Guthrie, W. K. C. (1962–1981). A history of Greek philosophy (Vols. 1–6). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.
• Hamilton, E. (1983). The Greek way. Mattituk, NY: Amereon Publishers.
• Hanson, V. D. (1989). The Western way of war: Infantry Battle in classical Greece. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Hurwit, J. M. (1985). The art and culture of early Greece, 1100– 480 b.c. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Thomas, C. G. (c. 1999). Citadel to city-state: The transformation of Greece, 1200–700 b.c.e. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
• Sealey, R. (1977). A history of the Greek city-states. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.

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World Mythology (HUM 1015)

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• Asian & Middle Eastern Cultures
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Below you will find common mythic themes and elements for certain world mythologies. Also included are some ideas for research paper topics for each culture. You will notice that some mythic themes and elements are common across different cultures and mythologies (for example Greek and Roman).  

Note:   The following information can be found using the Gale Virtual Reference Library Philosophy & Religion database provided under the  Database and Internet Links   tab, and the course study outline available in the Start Here!  tab. 

Universal Themes

Common Universal Themes in World Mythology

Creation and the Ordering of the Cosmos/Reality Afterlife and immortality Gender Roles - social roles and ideals  Deities - relation to the divine, nature Acquisition of Fire/Technology Geophysical Phenomenon (e.g. Flood or Apocalyptic myths; Time)

Common Themes in Greek Mythology:

-Obedience to a higher being or beings

-Human behavior; explaining consequences of good and bad behavior

-Relationships between men and women to one another

-War and military honor; Creation of Heroes

-explaining the destructive forces of natural disasters

-passage of time and life, including the afterlife

Paper Ideas:

- A potter creating artistic pots depicting the relationship between Zeus and Athena, or other characters from Greek mythology.(Why are you depicting that scene; what does the myth mean to you?)

- A home owner, with a family, and a stranger come to the home asking for shelter (Xenos, Theos)

- A Greek solider explaining his experience during the Trojan War

- A young Greek person has a dream about crossing the River Styx and seeing a deceased relative (describe the journey, how did you get to the underworld, did you meet other characters from Greek mythology there?)

Common Themes in Roman Mythology: 

-Celebration of Virtues (Honor, Bravery, Self-Sacrifice, and piety) 

-Gods and Goddess represent Virtue (deities do not possess the same human-like weaknesses and vices)

-War and Military Honor 

-Founding of Rome (Romulus and Remus story)

- A roman general speaks to his troops before a major battle (explain how the deities might favor those who demonstrate virtues listed above)

- Comparison of Greek and Roman Gods and/or Goddesses from the perspective of a Roman scholar

- You are an advisor to an Emperor of Rome, and have been tasked with explaining ways to honor the gods and goddess with a ceremony or festival  

India/Hindu

Common Themes in India/Hindu Mythology:

Importance of nature (sacred Animals, Trees, and mountains for example)

Eschatology,Death, Reincarnation of the soul

Ritualistic festivals and devotion to gods and goddesses

- Parents explain why good behavior is important to a child (Dharma, reincarnation ) 

- A village elder explains the significance of a sacred Tree within the village

- a young person talks about the forms of Vishnu, and how they see Vishnu in their daily lives, to a sibling. 

Common Themes in Norse Mythology: 

- Bravery/courage while facing a harsh fate

-Impending destruction of man and deities

-struggle between good and evil 

- focus on nature (fire, ice, trees, rainbows are all natural elements that appear in Norse Mythology)

- Creation of Sagas to honor ancestors 

Paper Ideas: 

- An elder member of a Viking family writes a saga describing the heroic efforts of a late family member

- You are part of the valkyries, and are selecting fallen warriors to enter Valhalla ( explain why a certain warrior makes it in to Valhalla, while another may be left out)

North American

Common Themes in North American Mythology:

-Bridge the gap between hunter/gatherer culture and settlement culture

-Varied beliefs according to unique history of events and geographic relationships

-Animal Spirits (e.g. Buffalos, wolves, rabbits are different types of animal spirits that appear in North American mythologies). 

-Origin stories (Commonalities in stories due to mass migration across Bering Straight and later spreading of tribes across North America)

-Sacred pieces; pipes, drums, robes, 

-Gender roles (e.g. Buffalo Woman & Handsome Stranger 

- You are a young warrior sent on a vision quest; describe what you are doing, and how it relates to the mythology of your culture, why is your vision quest important? 

- As a Navajo elder, you must explain the significance of the four sacred mountains of the Navajo and how the Navajo came to be.  

- You are a Creek woman explaining the story of the Lucky Hunter and the Corn Woman to your children (Creek Indian creation myth).

- You are a Ute Indian tribesman, and you spotted a wolf and a coyote while wondering your territory.  Explain the symbolism that these two creatures mean to your tribe.  Is it good or bad that you saw these two animals? Should you be concerned at the sight of a wolf or coyote? 

Meso-American

Common Themes in Meso-American Mythologies:

-Developed stable and sophisticated cultures early (as compared to Europe and China for example)

-astronomical observation and creation of complex calendars; movements of planets tracked (e.g. Venus) 

-architecture ( pyramid builders)

-The mystery and mists of time; development of corn

-The use of slaves

-Human sacrifice

-The Green Man (The maintenance of the cycle of nature)

- You are a member of the Mayan civilization.  Explain the significance of your birth date, does the date have any baring on the outcome of your life or your fate? 

- As a high priest in the Mayan culture, you must keep the deities happy and appeased.  What rituals and practices do you use, and why is this beneficial for your culture? ( NOTE : a paper like this can be graphic, please do not focus your paper on graphic or inappropriate images and themes.  Human sacrifice and bloodletting are examples of practices that occurred in Meso-American cultures, do not include graphic details of these practices, but instead explain how and why such rituals were practiced in these civilizations .)

- You are an Aztec elder and want to explain the origins of the civilization to a young family member.  You explain the 4 suns (or worlds) that came before your time, and explain their significance to the civilization. 

Common Themes in Egyptian Mythology

-Creation Myth (e.g. World, Ennead of Heliopolis,)

-Afterlife ( i.e. Myths of Osiris, Book of the Dead, mummies & pyramids )

-Numerous cults and rituals to deities (e.g. Cult of Isis ) 

-Solar Myths; Sun deities and the cycle of their daily movement

-The idea of Order ( ma at )- reflecting notions of truth, cooperation and Justice

-The influence of Egyptian Myths and rituals (e.g. Greeks and Romans borrow mythological elements and deities to fit their cultures)

-  You are an Egyptian watching the sun rise over the Nile River, explain the significance of this daily occurrence,  where did the sun go when it was night? What do you believe happened to the sun or deities that are associated with the sun during the night?

- You are an ancient scholar, you are studying the Cult of Osiris.  You have read or been told the story of Osiris by Egyptians, and discover that Plutarch, a Roman Historian, has also recorded a version of the story of Osiris.  Do you notice any variation in the Egyptian version of the story whe comparing it with Plutarch's version?

- You are an Egyptian farmer working lands near the Nile. Which gods and/or goddesses do you rely on for a healthy and bountiful crop? Do you feel that they help or do the deities seem to be against you? Why would the deities favor you or want to destroy you? 

Common Themes in Celtic Mythology:

- Celtic cultures were diverse and deities and myths were localized depending on the tribe.  

- Oral tradition of myth telling; most tales not recorded in text ( recorded versions of Celt tales come from Roman sources; Romans and Celts were enemies, thus Roman accounts are often unfavorable views of the Celtic culture). 

- Myths of the Otherworld ; How to get to the Otherworld; The use of Burial mounds ( sidhe),  importance of geographic features (e.g. lakes, caves)

- Magic, Magicians, and supernatural events (e.g. the magic cauldron or kettles) 

- Epic and perilous adventure stories; mysterious and dangerous lands; larger than life heroes

- Romance, love, and tricksters can be found any many tales. 

- As a Druid priest, you are teaching the tale of Dagda. What role does Dagda play as a member of the religious sect of Celtic culture? Do you have any magic powers as a Druid priest?

- You are Celtic hunter that has come across another tribe of Celts that you are not familiar with.  Discuss the differences in your tribes with a member from the new tribe you have found.  Are your deities the same? Do they have the same names? Did you hear a new version of a old tale? 

- You are a Roman solider that just fought a band of Celtic warriors.  You have taken a Celt warrior prisoner, and having spent a lot of time in the region, can understand the what the prisoner is saying. Explain the conversation.  Is the warrior praying to a certain deity? Does the warrior tell you anything about the Celtic culture and beliefs? 

Common Themes in Chinese Mythology :

- Complex and old mythology (Chinese history, mythology, and reality intertwine). 

- Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism factor into Chinese Mythology.

-Changing dynasties means more or less emphasis on particular deities in the pantheon of Chinese gods and goddesses.

- creation of the cosmos and human beings out of chaos (e.g. Pan Gu and the creation of the world) 

- nature; Explanations of natural phenomena; Animism used often to explain the natural world.

- Astronomical observation and the use of myth to explain the origins of stars, the sun, the moon and their movements.

- moral issues.

- ancestor worship (became more important to Chinese culture with the rise of the Zhou Dynasty)

- An elderly member of your family has recently passed away after a long life.  Explain how your family views the passing of your relative based on chinese mythology.  Do you think your relative was favored by the deities, or does their death make you think that your ancestor crossed the deities somehow? Will your family do any rituals or ceremonies to honor your ancestors? 

- As an ancient Chinese astronomers, you explain various myths that account for the sun, moon, and the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky.

-  You are a Chinese hunter/fisherman and are hoping to pass down your skills to your children.  You tell them the legend of the three Sovereigns and explain how this story is important to understand if the children want to be successful as hunters/fishermen. 

Common Themes in Japanese Mythology:

- Creation Myth (creation of the islands of Japan)

- Focus on nature; Everything in nature has a  kami --  a spirit or soul. 

- Many centuries myths were orally transmitted; 712 CE myths recorded in the  Kojiki  for Emperor; Another text, the  Nihongi  created around 720 CE contains more legends and myths, as well the genealogy of the imperial family (both text contain elements of Taoism). 

- Gods granting divine rights to Japanese Emperor

- The importance of mirrors as a mythic symbol

- Rituals to honor the Gods and Goddesses (e.g.kagura dances) 

-  You have grown up in a mountainous region of Japan, and have heard tales of the  tengu,  or trickster spirits that are part human and part bird, and inhabit the area. You have figured out a way to play a trick on the  tengu,  who do not like being on the opposite end of tricks.  What did you do and how did the tengu respond to your trickster ways?

- You serve the Japanese Imperial family as a scribe and/or scholar. You are writing a personal journal entry to yourself questioning the divine origins of the Imperial family.  Do you believe that they are truly descendents from the gods and goddesses as Japanese mythology claims? Why or why not?

- As a Japanese rice farmer, you harvest the most important crop for the civilization. Discuss the various deities and legends that help you cultivate this important food crop. (e.g.  Inari,  Amaterasu) 

Common Themes in Arthurian Legend:

-   A blend of Celtic Myth, history, and medieval romance; Arthurian Legend factor in to the Mythology of the British Isles (Britain, Ireland, Wales).

-  King Arthur may or may not have really existed

- Many Characters in early Arthurian Legends based on older Celtic myth characters (e.g. Merlin and Myrddin)

-  Equality amongst Knights of the Round Table.

- Magic Powers, supernatural beings, and epic quests part of Arthurian legends.

- Loyalty and human weakness explored in Arthurian legends.

- King Arthur is considered a timeless, or eternal king; Scholars have seen similarities between King Arthur and Sun Gods (die and set in the west, but reborn)

- Legends transform over time (Search for Magic cauldron becomes search for Holy Grail); Medieval writers create new Arthurian legends

Paper Ideas:  

- You are a medieval scholar and you have a new take on the Legend of King Arthur and his sword, Excalibur. Why do you need to retell this tale? What is different in your telling of the legend compared to other versions of the this legend? 

- Suppose that King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table did exist, and you are an aspiring Knight, hoping to be amongst those that set at the Round Table.  How would you gain favor with the King? Describe what it takes to be a Knight of the Round Table.  

- Compare an Arthurian Legend with the Celtic myth from which it originated.  How are they similar? How do they differ? (e.g. Merlin compared to Myrddin ; Quest for the magic cauldron compared with quest for the Holy Grail). 

Polynesian Mythology

Common Themes in Polynesian Mythology:

-Polynesia consists of several islands and cultures located in the Pacific Ocean (  Ranging from Midway and Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, the triangular area called Polynesia also includes Tahiti, Samoa, Tonga, Tuamotu, the Cook Islands, and the Pitcairn Islands).

-Though slight variations in mythologies exist based on particular island cultures, many of the basic themes, gods, and stories are shared throughout Polynesia. 

- Large emphasis on nature; Myths and legends explain the importance of the Ocean to Polynesian cultures.

- Creation myths very important to Polynesian Cultures (e.g. Ao and Po Hawaiian Myth; Te Po, Te Kore, Rangi, and Papi Moari myth)

- Yams and sweet potatoes are stable crops of Polynesian cultures, and have their own myths and legends surrounding them.

- Humans must deal with uncooperative or unfriendly gods in someway (e.g. myth of Maui) 

-  As a yam farmer on the island of Samoa, you have had a dismal crop and need to explain to your family why the deities cursed you this harvest. Using myths, explain what went wrong, and if possible, how to correct this problem for the next harvest. 

- You have grown up in the ancient Hawaiian culture, and experience the arrival of European explorers coming to your shore for the first time.  Based on your myths, how do you interpret the arrive of of these entities? Are they human? Is this a good or bad sign from the Gods and Goddesses?  

- As an experienced sailor from Tahiti, you are about to embark on a trip across the ocean.  Are there rituals that will help you have a safe voyage? Are their mythical creatures or certain deities you should worry about while you prepare for the voyage? Explain your thoughts as you load your craft for the ocean voyage. 

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Ancient Greek Civilization History Research Paper

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Introduction

Works cited.

Greek history is very rich. This paper looks at definitions and significance of terms and names used in Greek history. They include: Dark Age, funeral games, hector, Archilochus, Ionia History, Helots, Cleisthenes and Sacred disease.

Dark Age is the period in Greek history between 1200 BC and 800 BC. During this period, the Greek generations passed on tales from the poems of Homer.

It is believed that Homer was blind and hence the name “dark age.” The Dark Age symbolizes the fall of civilization. In this duration, there was famine, little trade with foreigners and the Greek language was not used. The Dark Age ended when the Greeks began writing (McInerney 17).

Funeral games are held in ancient Greek to respect the departed. Patroclus in the Iliad received such honor. Achilles, Patroclus’ friend initiated games which included chariot-race, fighting, wrestling. These games inspired individuals to be the best at all times and this is because the funeral games were performed only for heroes (Latacz 50)

Hector was a dedicated and courageous warrior from ancient Troy. He signified heroism in the Greek civilization. He fought selflessly for the Greek people. Moreover Hector does not demonstrate pride; he accepted advice from his wife and bid them goodbye. He was a responsible person who took care of his family and worked as a warrior (McInerney 18)

Archilochus is a known poet in ancient Greek. He attempted to put together literature styles in Greek and also wrote several poems. In his writing he said much about the kind of rule seen in Greece. He often criticized tyranny in his poems.

Ionia was an un-unified state of the Greeks dominated by Ionian tribe. It was established by the colonialist along the coastal strip of eastern Greek. It is associated with the development of art. There was an established school that taught and focused on both Greek and non- Greek art. This stimulated trade between the Greek and the neighboring communities (McInerney 57).

History of Greek in the 5 th century was marked by the Persian war. In this century, there were inventions such as anchor with flukes. Shear legs cast iron and linear perspective began to be used. Furthermore it is during this time when the Book of Law was written by Li Kui a Chinese philosopher (McInerney 57). Significant figures such as Buddha and Confucius lived at this time.

Helots were citizens of Greek and most of them lived in Sparta and were neither in slavery nor free. They were mainly farmers and represented a majority of the population. They held festivals and traditional ceremonies (Latacz 6).

Cleisthenes was an Athenian leader who came from a noble family. He contributed to the change in the constitution and brought reforms in Athens. In addition Cleisthenes advocated for democracy. He criticized the government for tyranny and as a result, he is considered the father of democracy in Greek (Latacz 13).

Sacred disease refers to epilepsy. York and Steinberg (1) point out that people believed that sacred disease came about because the Gods had been aggrieved. There was an argument to establish whether it was a disease from a natural or supernatural cause.

Herodotus believed that it could have been a somatic disease. Today archeologists suggest that it was a medical cause. However, there was no agreement on what the cause of madness was.

In the Greek civilization, poetry played a big role in passing on tales about ancient culture. Greek history is full or art and symbolism and great warriors are a permanent figure in it.

Latacz, Joachim. Troy and Homer. The so-called Dark Ages in Greece, in: Storia, Poesia e Pensiero nel Mondo antico. Rome: Studi in Onore di M. Gigante. 1994. Web.

York, George K & Steinberg, David A. The Sacred Disease of Cambyses II . Chicago: American Medical Association. 2001. Web.

McInerney, Jeremy. Ancient Greek Civilization: Part I . Orlando: The Teaching Company Limited. 1998. Web.

• Traditional Epic Hero in Homer's "The Iliad"
• Homer: The Theme of Men at War in “The Iliad”
• Achilles Is One of the Major Characters in “The Iliad”
• Lucretius’s View About the Roman Agriculture
• Ancient Greek Democracy That Still Makes People Strive for Perfection
• Mesopotamian Civilization
• Ancient Societies In Asia
• History of Athenian Democracy
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, May 27). Ancient Greek Civilization History. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-history-research-paper/

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IvyPanda . 2019. "Ancient Greek Civilization History." May 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-history-research-paper/.

1. IvyPanda . "Ancient Greek Civilization History." May 27, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/greek-history-research-paper/.

Bibliography

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Build a Corporate Culture That Works

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

All too often a culture is described as a set of anodyne norms, principles, or values, which do not offer decision-makers guidance on how to make difficult choices when faced with conflicting but equally defensible courses of action.

The trick to making a desired culture come alive is to debate and articulate it using dilemmas. If you identify the tough dilemmas your employees routinely face and clearly state how they should be resolved—“In this company, when we come across this dilemma, we turn left”—then your desired culture will take root and influence the behavior of the team.

To develop a culture that works, follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value statement.

Start by thinking about the dilemmas your people will face.

Idea in Brief

The problem.

There’s a widespread understanding that managing corporate culture is key to business success. Yet few companies articulate their corporate culture in such a way that the words become an organizational reality that molds employee behavior as intended.

What Usually Happens

How to fix it.

Follow six rules: Ground your culture in the dilemmas you are likely to confront, dilemma-test your values, communicate your values in colorful terms, hire people who fit, let culture drive strategy, and know when to pull back from a value.

At the beginning of my career, I worked for the health-care-software specialist HBOC. One day, a woman from human resources came into the cafeteria with a roll of tape and began sticking posters on the walls. They proclaimed in royal blue the company’s values: “Transparency, Respect, Integrity, Honesty.” The next day we received wallet-sized plastic cards with the same words and were asked to memorize them so that we could incorporate them into our actions. The following year, when management was indicted on 17 counts of conspiracy and fraud, we learned what the company’s values really were.

• EM Erin Meyer is a professor at INSEAD, where she directs the executive education program Leading Across Borders and Cultures. She is the author of The Culture Map: Breaking Through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business (PublicAffairs, 2014) and coauthor (with Reed Hastings) of No Rules Rules: Netflix and the Culture of Reinvention (Penguin, 2020). ErinMeyerINSEAD

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