essay on urban unemployment

Urban youth unemployment: A looming crisis?

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May 2, 2018

Unemployment is a growing challenge around the world, though it is not a full-blown crisis yet. However, when the crisis comes, it is likely to erupt among urban youth.

While heading off such a calamity will not be easy, the global benefits of doing so would be great. As productive and socially responsible adults, the youth of today and in years to come could make planet Earth a better place for all.

A quick survey of the literature makes it clear that there will be no simple or universal solutions to the challenge of urban youth unemployment. The factors producing it are different in each city and useful interventions have to be well tailored to the cultural context.

Youth are the prime unemployment concern globally because their numbers are growing in most countries and because they are more prone to violence than adults. They have less to lose. Harvard professor Samuel Huntington made the point bluntly in an interview with journalist Michael Steinberger in The Observer on October 21, 2001: “Generally speaking, the people who go out and kill other people are males between the ages of 16 and 30.”

The first major outbreaks of violence by unemployed youth are likely to occur in cities because of the rapid pace of urbanization everywhere. The expectations of people in rural areas seem too low and their dispersion too great to create a combustible moment.  Subsistence existence is normal there.

Fortunately, there are a number of counter currents. Demography may be the most important. Fertility is falling around the world. Women need to have 2.1 children on average to maintain a stable population size. After rising rapidly in the 20th century due to modern medicine and public health, fertility began falling below 2.1 in high-income countries in the 1970s and in the middle-income countries in the 1990s. Maybe fewer young people in the future will reduce the threat of social disorder.

According to World Population Prospects 2017 published by the United Nations, the mid-range forecast for global population in 2050 is 9.8 billion, up from 7.6 billion in 2015. Fertility in high-income countries is projected to remain below replacement level, stuck around 1.80 in 2050. Fertility in the upper middle-income countries will be only slightly higher at 1.82. For the lower middle-income countries, the largest of these four groups, fertility will be 2.25 in 2050, significantly down from 2.88 in 2015. It is the low-income countries, primarily in Africa, that have been and will continue to be the major source of global population growth, even as their fertility rate is projected to drop from 5.0 in 2015 to 3.08 in 2050. Despite this impressive fall, the population of this group of countries is on track to more than double from 600 million in 2015 to 1.4 billion in 2050.

It is possible that fertility will decline faster in the low-income and lower-middle income countries than the U.N. is projecting. As a result, combined with war and disease, the size of the global youth cohort, 15-24 years of age, could start shrinking by 2050. With continuing migration of youth from rural to urban areas, however, urban youth unemployment could be rising in these countries even as the number of youth is falling.

The other major cross current is that governments and the private sector are focused on creating more good jobs for youth. The leading sources of information and discussion about youth employment are the International Labor Organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, and the World Bank based in Washington, D.C. Both sources are promoting research on effective interventions and ways to scale these up.

Youth employment is also on the agenda of the G-20 Summit process, under the G-20’s Framework Working Group on the Future of Work (co-chaired by India and Canada). This week the ILO is convening the first global conference on “ Innovation for Decent Jobs for Youth .”

The extensive academic research on youth unemployment highlights the complexities of the global challenge. For example, the expectations and education of youth vary tremendously between high-income and low-income countries. At the same time, the capacity of governments to mount effective programs varies greatly. Furthermore, the interests of international nongovernmental organizations and multinational corporations do not always align with the countries of greatest need.

There is a thriving universe of programs seeking to prepare youth for employment through a variety of training and job market activities. Most governments in the world are supporting at least one form of a youth employment program, from volunteer service to tax benefits to matching employers with youth. A multitude of international and domestic NGOs are working in this space. One of the oldest is the International Youth Foundation based in Baltimore, Maryland. Leading multinational corporations have put youth employment at the center of their corporate social responsibility programs, including CitiGroup , the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation , Mastercard Foundation , and McKinsey & Company .

So far, however, assessments of these interventions have found few that have a major and sustained impact on employment, or can be scaled up easily, or can be replicated effectively in other cities.

A major complication is the pace of technological and social change. From one year to the next, the world has gone from seeing social media almost as a panacea to being a threat to civil order. The work place is changing before our eyes, with the gig economy growing while full-time, long-term employment with benefits is stagnant or shrinking.

Is enough being done to avoid an urban youth unemployment crisis before 2030, the benchmark year for the U.N.’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals? Goal 8 is especially relevant; it includes “ full and productive employment and decent work for all .”

What kinds of programs seem to have the potential for mitigating the risks of a crisis and can be scaled up or replicated across cities? Is it enough to focus on preparing youth for jobs or will it be necessary to tackle directly the potential for youth violence in cities and even redefine our visions of work?

An attempt will be made over the coming year to answer these questions in an effort to make sure that the global policy community is giving the challenge of urban youth employment the attention it deserves.

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Unemployment Essay for Students and Children

500+ words essay on unemployment.

Unemployment is a very serious issue not only in India but in the whole world. There are hundreds and thousands of people out there who do not have employment . Besides, the problems of unemployment are very severe in India because of the growing population and demand for jobs. Moreover, if we neglect this problem then it will be going to become the reason for the doom of the nation.

What is Unemployment?

Unemployment refers to a situation in which a skilled and talented people wanted to do a job. But cannot find a proper job due to several reasons.

Types of Unemployment

Now we know what is unemployment but unemployment does not only mean that the person does not have a job. Likewise, unemployment also includes people working in areas out of their expertise.

The various types of unemployment include disguised unemployment, seasonal unemployment, open unemployment, technological unemployment, structural unemployment. Besides, some other unemployment is cyclic unemployment, educated unemployment, underemployment, frictional unemployment, chronic unemployment, and casual unemployment.

Above all, seasonal unemployment, under unemployment, and disguised unemployment are the most common unemployment that is found in India.

Reasons for Unemployment

In a country like India, there is much reason for a large section of the population for being unemployed. Some of these factors are population growth, slow economic growth , seasonal occupation, slow growth of the economic sector, and fall in the cottage industry.

Moreover, these are the major reason for unemployment in India. Also, the situation has become so drastic that highly educated people are ready to do the job of a sweeper. Besides, the government is not doing his work seriously.

Apart from all these, a large portion of the population is engaged in the agricultural sector and the sector only provides employment in harvest or plantation time.

In addition, the biggest reason of unemployment in India is its vast population which demands a large number of jobs every year which the government and authorities are unable to provide.

Consequences of Unemployment

If things will go on like the current scenario then unemployment will become a major issue. Apart from this, the following things happen in an economy which is an increase in poverty, an increase in crime rate, exploitation of labor, political instability, mental health, and loss of skills. As a result, all this will eventually lead to the demise of the nation.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Initiative by Government

The government has taken the problem very seriously and have taken measures to slowly reduce unemployment. Some of these schemes includes IRDP (Integrated Rural Development Programme), DPAP (Drought Prone Area Programme), Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, Employment Assurance Scheme, NRY (Nehru Rozgar Yojana), Training for self-Employment, PMIUPEP (Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Program), employment exchange, Employment Guarantee Scheme, development of organized sector, small and cottage industries, employment in forging countries, and Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana and few more.

Besides, these schemes the government also make some rules flexible, so that employment can be created in the private sector also.

To conclude, we can say that the problem of unemployment in India has reached a critical stage. But, now the government and local authorities have taken the problem seriously and working on it to reduce unemployment. Also, to completely solve the issue of unemployment we have to tackle the main issue of unemployment that is the vast population of India.

FAQs about Unemployment

Q.1 Why there is a problem of unemployment in India? A.1 Due to overpopulation and lack of proper skills there is a problem of unemployment in India.

Q.2 Define Disguised unemployment? A.2 Disguised unemployment refers to a form of employment in which more than the required numbers of people work in industry or factory. And removing some employee will not affect productivity.

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Unemployment Essay

500+ words essay on unemployment.

Unemployment is a serious problem among young people. There are thousands of people who do not have any work to do and cannot find work for themselves. Unemployment refers to the situation where a person wants to work but cannot find employment in the labour market. One of the major reasons that contribute to unemployment is the large population of India and the limited availability of resources. In this essay on unemployment, we will discuss all these issues responsible for unemployment in India and how we can overcome this problem. Students must go through this unemployment essay to get ideas on how to write an effective essay on the topic related to unemployment. Also, they can practice more CBSE essays on different topics to boost their writing skills.

Unemployment is measured by the unemployment rate, defined as the number of people actively looking for a job as a percentage of the labour force. The unemployment rate for the year 2013-14 in rural India was 4.7%, whereas it was 5.5% for urban India. In the short term, unemployment significantly reduces a person’s income and, in the long term, it reduces their ability to save for retirement and other goals. Unemployment is a loss of valuable productive resources to the economy. The impact of job loss in rural and regional areas flows through the local community, damaging businesses.

Reason for Unemployment

An unemployed person is one who is an active member of the labour force and is seeking work but is unable to find any work for himself. There are multiple reasons behind the unemployment of a person. One of them is the slow economic growth, due to which jobs in adequate numbers are not created. Excessive dependence on agriculture and slow growth of non-farm activities also limit employment generation. Unemployment in urban areas is mainly the result of substantial rural migration to urban areas. This has also resulted in a labour workforce in cities. The lack of technology and proper machinery has also contributed to unemployment.

The present educational system is based on theoretical knowledge instead of practical work. Thus, it lacks the development of aptitude and technical qualifications required for various types of work among job seekers. This has created a mismatch between the need and availability of relevant skills and training. This results in unemployment, especially among the youth and educated people with high degrees and qualifications. Apart from it, the lack of investment and infrastructure has led to inadequate employment opportunities in different sectors.

Steps to Eliminate Unemployment

Various strategies and proposals have been implemented to generate employment. Many Employment programmes and policies have been introduced and undertaken to boost self-employment and help unemployed people engage in public works. The Government of India has taken several policy measures to fight the problem of unemployment. Some of the measures are the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), National Skill Development Mission, Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY), Regional Rural Banks (RRBs).

Despite the measures taken by the government, India remains a country experiencing severe unemployment problems. It can be resolved by imparting education in such a way that youth get the necessary skills so as to get employment easily. Setting up various vocational training and vocational courses for undergraduate and postgraduate students will help in finding employment for youth. The government needs to emphasise these courses at the primary level and make them a compulsory part of the curriculum to make students proficient in their early stages of life. Career counselling should be provided within schools and colleges so that students can choose a better career option based on their interests and ability. Government should create more job opportunities for the youth and graduates.

India is a fast-growing economy. There is an enormous scope for improvement in the unemployment sector. The various measures and steps taken by the government to increase the employment rate have succeeded to a great extent. The widespread skill development programmes have gained popularity across the nation. With better enforcement of the strategies, the employment level can be significantly improved. Although, we have to go a long way before we can say that all the people in India will get employment.

We hope this essay on unemployment must have helped students in boosting their essay-writing skills. Keep learning and visiting the BYJU’S website for more study material.

Frequently Asked Questions on Unemployment Essay

Is unemployment still an existing problem in india.

Yes, unemployment is still a serious issue in our country. Steps need to be taken by the government and also by the youngsters in India to improve this situation.

Is it necessary for schoolchildren to be informed about unemployment?

Students at this young age should definitely be informed about this topic as it will motivate them to study and aim for higher scores in exams.

What points are to be added to an essay topic on Unemployment?

Add details about different age groups of people suffering from this state of employment. You can focus on the fact that poverty is an indirect reason for unemployment and vice-versa. Then, suggest steps that can be taken to bring about an improvement in education and increase the percentage of literacy.

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Unemployment and Labor Market in Urban Ethiopia: Trends and Current Conditions

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Rural—Urban Migration, Unemployment and Job Probabilities: Recent Theoretical and Empirical Research

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• Michael P. Todaro 2  

Part of the book series: International Economic Association Series ((IEA))

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Until recently, research on rural—urban migration in less developed countries has been largely dominated by the work of geographers, demographers and sociologists. For the most part, economists have preferred to ignore migration while operating within the confines of their traditional ‘two-sector’ models. In the case of a ‘closed’ economy these sectors usually consisted of the agricultural and the industrial with the implicit understanding that one could substitute ‘rural’ for ‘agricultural’ and ‘urban’ for ‘industrial’. Emphasis has been placed on traditional economic variables such as output growth rates, terms of trade, savings and investment, and relative efficiency. The efficient allocation of human resources between sectors, if discussed at all, has been assumed to be a natural out-growth of a self-adjusting mechanism which functioned to equate sectoral marginal productivities. Rural—urban migration was portrayed as a manifestation of this self-adjusting mechanism (with its implicit full-employment assumptions) and, as such, was not deemed to be of sufficient intrinsic importance to warrant detailed theoretical and empirical investigation.

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Todaro, M.P. (1976). Rural—Urban Migration, Unemployment and Job Probabilities: Recent Theoretical and Empirical Research. In: Coale, A.J. (eds) Economic Factors in Population Growth. International Economic Association Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-02518-3_13

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2022 Theses Doctoral

Essays in Urban Economics

Bamford, Iain

This dissertation studies the determinants of the spatial distribution of economic activity and how such activity is affected by public policy. The dissertation contains three chapters. In the first chapter, we ask: what role does labor market competitiveness play in determining the location decisions of firms and workers, and the resulting spatial wage distribution? To answer this question, we develop a model of monopsony power in spatial equilibrium. Workers and firms are free to locate in any labor market, and the degree of market power a firm enjoys depends on the number of competing firms in its location. We show the model can rationalize concentrations of economic activity and the city-size wage premium through an endogenous labor market competitiveness channel: in larger labor markets, endogenous firm entry increases labor market competition, decreasing wage markdowns and increasing equilibrium wages. To estimate the magnitude of labor market competitiveness differences across space, we utilize matched employer-employee data from Germany. Using a canonical empirical methodology from the labor economics literature on monopsony, we estimate that labor markets are significantly more competitive in larger cities. Calibrating the model to match this reduced-form evidence, we find endogenous labor market competitiveness can explain 37% of the city-size wage premium and 14% of all agglomeration. In the second chapter, we use the new framework developed in Chapter 1 to study the spatial and welfare implications of the 2015 German national minimum wage law. We first show a traditional spatial model that ignores variation in monopsony power across space predicts large unemployment effects in smaller, lower-wage labor markets, contradicting the reduced-form evidence on the effects of the law. Turning to our monopsony framework, we note that in the calibrated model, monopsony power is strongest in smaller, lower-wage labor markets: exactly those that the perfectly competitive model predicted would have the largest unemployment effects. Imposing the minimum wage in the calibrated monopsony framework, we find results in line with the reduced-form evidence — minimal unemployment effects, even in the lowest-wage labor markets, and therefore significant convergence in regional nominal wage inequality. Accounting for spatially-varying monopsony power, we find the enacted national law outperforms an alternative policy with a lower level of the minimum wage in East Germany, while a law that takes into account variation in productivity and competitiveness significantly outperforms both. In the third chapter (joint with Pablo Ernesto Warnes and Timur Abbiasov), we examine the effects of pedestrianization on business visits. There are significant debates in urban planning on the use of road space in cities. Should (some) streets be pedestrianized? Critics suggest closing streets to vehicles can harm local businesses by reducing access. The effect of pedestrianization on business visits has been difficult to assess due to the lack of an appropriate experiment and lack of systematic data on foot traffic. We examine a unique recent experiment, New York City's Open Streets program, which closed hundreds of street segments to cars, and utilize new anonymized cellphone geodata to measure visits to businesses. Using a matched difference-in-differences design, we find small effects of the program on visits overall, with sufficient precision to rule out significant negative effects, contradicting critics' predictions. We find significant positive effects on visits for Open Streets further from the Central Business District, especially for restaurants and bars. For such businesses, we find a 14% increase in visits as a result of the program.

Geographic Areas

• New York (State)--New York
• Public policy (Law)
• Labor market
• Wages--Econometric models
• Minimum wage
• Monopsonies--Econometric models
• Pedestrian areas--Economic aspects

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Essay on Unemployment

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Essay on Unemployment in 150-250 words

Essay on unemployment in 300-500 words, essay on unemployment in 500-1000 words.

Unemployment is a pressing issue that affects individuals and societies globally. It refers to the state of being without a job or a source of income despite actively seeking employment. Unemployment poses significant challenges, both economic and social, for individuals and communities.

The consequences of unemployment are far-reaching. Financial instability decreased living standards, and a loss of self-esteem and confidence are common outcomes. Individuals may face difficulties in meeting their basic needs, providing for their families, and planning for the future. Moreover, unemployment can lead to social unrest, increased crime rates, and a strain on public resources.

Addressing unemployment requires a multifaceted approach. It involves creating favorable economic conditions, promoting job growth through investment and entrepreneurship, and providing individuals with the necessary skills and training for employment opportunities. Furthermore, social safety nets, such as unemployment benefits and job placement services, play a crucial role in supporting those who are unemployed.

Efforts to reduce unemployment should also focus on addressing structural issues in the labor market, promoting fair employment practices, and encouraging inclusive growth. Additionally, fostering a supportive environment for innovation, research, and development can stimulate job creation and economic prosperity.

In conclusion, unemployment is a complex issue with wide-ranging implications for individuals and societies. It demands comprehensive strategies that encompass economic policies, skill development, and social support systems. By addressing unemployment effectively, we can strive towards a society where individuals have access to fulfilling work opportunities and can contribute to the overall well-being and prosperity of their communities.

Title: Unemployment – The Economic and Social Challenge

Introduction :

Unemployment is a pressing issue that affects individuals, families, and societies worldwide. It refers to the state of being without a job or a viable source of income despite actively seeking employment. High levels of unemployment have significant economic and social consequences, making it a critical challenge to address.

Causes of Unemployment

Unemployment can stem from various factors. Economic downturns and recessions often result in job losses as businesses struggle to sustain their operations. Technological advancements and automation have also led to job displacement, particularly in industries that rely heavily on manual labor. Globalization and outsourcing practices have contributed to the relocation of jobs to countries with lower labor costs, creating unemployment in certain regions.

Impact of Unemployment

Unemployment has far-reaching implications. Financial instability resulting from joblessness can lead to increased poverty rates, limited access to healthcare, and housing insecurity. It also strains social cohesion, as unemployed individuals may experience psychological distress, low self-esteem, and a loss of purpose. Moreover, long-term unemployment can lead to skills deterioration and a loss of work experience, making it increasingly difficult for individuals to re-enter the labor market.

Addressing Unemployment

Addressing unemployment requires a multi-faceted approach:

Economic Policies: Governments should implement policies that promote economic growth, investment, and job creation. This includes fostering a business-friendly environment, reducing bureaucratic barriers, and providing incentives for entrepreneurship and innovation. Additionally, targeted industry development strategies can identify sectors with growth potential and encourage job creation in those areas.

Education and Skills Development: Investing in education and skills development is crucial to equip individuals with the necessary competencies for available job opportunities. Collaboration between educational institutions, employers, and government agencies can help bridge the skills gap and ensure that individuals are prepared for the changing demands of the labor market. Upskilling and reskilling programs can help unemployed individuals acquire new skills and improve their employability.

Job Creation Initiatives: Governments should prioritize job creation initiatives, particularly in sectors with high growth potential. This can be achieved through infrastructure projects, green technology investments, and support for small and medium-sized enterprises. Public-private partnerships can also play a significant role in stimulating job creation and economic development.

Social Safety Nets: Establishing robust social safety nets is crucial to support those facing unemployment. Unemployment benefits, healthcare coverage, and access to retraining programs can help individuals meet their basic needs and regain economic stability while actively seeking employment. Such support systems alleviate the financial burden and provide a safety net during challenging times.

Conclusion :

Unemployment is a complex and persistent socioeconomic challenge that demands comprehensive solutions. By implementing effective economic policies, investing in education and skills development, promoting job creation, and providing social safety nets, societies can mitigate the impacts of unemployment and strive toward a more equitable and prosperous future. It is essential to address this issue with urgency, as reducing unemployment rates not only improves individual well-being but also fosters economic growth and social cohesion.

Title: Unemployment – A Dual Crisis of Economic Stability and Human Dignity

Unemployment is a complex and pervasive issue that affects individuals, families, and societies at large. It refers to the state of being without a job or a viable source of income despite actively seeking employment. High levels of unemployment have severe economic and social consequences, making it a pressing challenge that demands effective solutions and interventions. This essay aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of the causes, impacts, and potential remedies for unemployment, recognizing its multifaceted nature and the need for a holistic approach.

I. Understanding Unemployment

Unemployment can be classified into various types based on its causes and duration. Structural unemployment arises from shifts in the economy, such as technological advancements or changes in market demand, rendering certain jobs obsolete. Cyclical unemployment, on the other hand, is caused by economic downturns and fluctuations in business cycles. Frictional unemployment occurs when individuals are between jobs or in transition, while seasonal unemployment is linked to seasonal variations in certain industries.

II. Economic Implications

Unemployment poses significant challenges to the economy at both micro and macro levels. At an individual level, it leads to a loss of income and financial instability, making it difficult for individuals to meet their basic needs, contribute to the economy, and plan for the future. Moreover, the lack of economic opportunities leads to a decrease in consumer spending, which negatively impacts businesses and reduces their profitability. This, in turn, can trigger downsizing, closures, and a negative cycle of job losses, further exacerbating the unemployment crisis.

On a macroeconomic scale, high unemployment rates hinder economic growth and development. The decline in consumer spending decreases demand for goods and services, creating a ripple effect throughout the economy. Governments also face challenges in generating tax revenues, leading to reduced public investment in infrastructure, education, and healthcare. Additionally, increased government spending on unemployment benefits and social support places a strain on public finances, potentially leading to higher budget deficits or cuts in other areas.

III. Social Consequences

Unemployment not only impacts individuals’ economic well-being but also has profound social implications. Financial instability resulting from joblessness can lead to increased poverty levels, housing insecurity, and limited access to healthcare, further exacerbating social inequalities. The psychological toll of unemployment cannot be overlooked, as individuals may experience feelings of anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and a loss of purpose. This can strain relationships, lead to social isolation, and create a sense of hopelessness among the unemployed.

Furthermore, long-term unemployment can result in skills deterioration and a loss of work experience, making it increasingly difficult for individuals to re-enter the labor market. This perpetuates a cycle of unemployment and hinders upward social mobility, reinforcing existing inequalities and social divisions.

IV. Causes of Unemployment

Unemployment is influenced by a combination of economic, structural, and policy-related factors. Economic downturns, such as recessions or financial crises, can lead to widespread job losses as businesses struggle to stay afloat. Technological advancements and automation also contribute to job displacement, particularly in industries that rely heavily on manual labor. Globalization and outsourcing practices can result in the relocation of jobs to countries with lower labor costs, further aggravating unemployment in certain regions.

Inadequate education and skills training also contribute to unemployment. Rapid changes in the labor market demand individuals with up-to-date skills and knowledge. Failure to adapt and provide relevant training can leave individuals ill-equipped to secure employment in sectors with higher demand.

V. Addressing Unemployment

Effectively addressing unemployment requires a comprehensive approach that combines economic policies, education and skills development, job creation initiatives, and social safety nets. Some potential strategies include:

• Economic Policies
• Education and Skills Development
• Job Creation and Support
• Social Safety Nets

Economic Policies:

Governments should implement policies that foster a conducive business environment, promote investment, and stimulate job creation. This may involve reducing bureaucratic barriers, providing incentives for entrepreneurship and innovation, and investing in infrastructure projects to generate employment opportunities.

Education and Skills Development:

A focus on education and skills training is crucial to equip individuals with the necessary competencies for available job opportunities. Collaboration between educational institutions, employers, and government agencies can help bridge the skills gap and align education with labor market needs. Upskilling and reskilling programs should be promoted to ensure individuals can adapt to evolving job requirements.

Job Creation and Support:

Governments should prioritize job creation initiatives in sectors with growth potential, such as renewable energy, healthcare, technology, and infrastructure development. This can be achieved through investment incentives, public-private partnerships, and targeted industry development strategies. Additionally, providing job placement services, vocational training, and financial assistance to unemployed individuals can enhance their employability and facilitate their transition back into the workforce.

Social Safety Nets:

Establishing robust social safety nets is essential to provide temporary relief and assistance to those facing job loss. Unemployment benefits, healthcare coverage, and support for retraining can help individuals meet their basic needs and regain economic stability while actively seeking employment. Such measures help alleviate the negative impacts of unemployment and support individuals during periods of transition.

Unemployment is a dual crisis of economic stability and human dignity, impacting individuals and societies on multiple levels. The economic and social consequences of unemployment demand comprehensive and coordinated efforts to address its causes and mitigate its impacts. By implementing effective economic policies, investing in education and skills development, promoting job creation, and providing robust social safety nets, societies can strive towards reducing unemployment rates and creating a more inclusive and prosperous future for all.

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Rural-Urban Migration and Unemployment: Theory and Policy Implications

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Unemployment and Labor Market in Urban Ethiopia: Trends and Current Conditions

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Unemployment and food insecurity in urban Ethiopia

Factors associated with women unemployment in ethiopia, interaction of ethiopian and world inflation: a time series analysis;vecm approach, deriving forces and socioeconomic status of women in the urban informal sector in bichena town, west-central ethiopia, socio-economic and psychological risks of unemployed youth in developing countries: evidence from hawassa city, ethiopia, maximun likelihood estimation and inference on cointegration - with applications to the demand for money, the analysis of household surveys : a microeconometric approach to development policy, cointegration and error correction: representation, democracy and growth, statistical and econometric methods for transportation data analysis, related papers (5), trending questions (1).

The provided paper does not discuss the effect of unemployment on credit in Ethiopia. The paper focuses on the determinants of unemployment in urban Ethiopia and its impact on household welfare.

Extraordinary Labor Market Developments and the 2022-23 Disinflation

Two extraordinary U.S. labor market developments facilitated the sharp disinflation in 2022-23 without raising the unemployment rate. First, pandemic-driven infection worries and social distancing intentions caused a sizable drag on labor force participation that began to reverse in the first quarter of 2022, and perhaps earlier. As the reversal unfolded, it raised labor supply and reduced wage growth. Second, the pandemic-instigated shift to work from home (WFH) raised the amenity value of employment in many jobs and for many workers. This development lowered wage-growth pressures along the transition path to a new equilibrium with pay packages that recognized higher remote work levels and their benefits to workers. Surveys of business executives imply that the shift to WFH lowered average wage growth by two percentage points from spring 2021 to spring 2023. A direct inspection finds that average real wage growth from 2021 Q1 to 2024 Q1 in the U.S. economy was at least 3.5 to 4.4 ppts below the path suggested by pre-pandemic experience. This large shortfall in real wage growth aligns well with the interpretation of the 2022-23 disinflation offered here.

This essay draws on my research with Jose Maria Barrero, Nick Bloom, Brent Mayer and Emil Mihaylov. Hyoseul Kim assisted in the preparation of figures and tables. Errors are my own. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

MARC RIS BibTeΧ

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Explainer | ‘Urban drifters’: China’s jobless roam city streets during working week to hide plight from families

• Shamed China jobless spend weekdays in coffee shops to hide plight, trend turns spotlight on nation’s unemployment problem

The term “urban drifters” has recently gone viral on social media in China.

It is used to describe jobless people or those struggling to find work who roam city streets during working hours to hide their plight from their families.

China’s National Statistics Bureau has reported that the urban unemployment rate from January to April stands at 5.2 per cent, a 0.2-per-cent decrease from last year.

The youth unemployment rate for 16-24 year-olds, excluding college students, was 14.7 per cent in April.

The Post takes a closer look.

Anxiety and blessings

Zhang Ni, 35, had never been out of work in her life, but she decided to take her time after resigning from her last job because it had such a detrimental effect on her physical and mental health.

She said the Beijing start-up company she worked for did not treat her equally and loaded her with excessive work.

After leaving the company last November, Zhang did not want her family to worry about her, so she commuted to a book cafe every weekday. She is still doing so six months later.

Zhang posted on her Xiaohongshu account @KouniConnie that it was an experience filled with both anxiety and blessings.

Despite worrying about her reduced income and the lack of achievement, she felt unable to begin a new job she did not like.

On the up side, drifting helped her rediscover the beauty of Beijing. She enjoyed having the time to appreciate the city she had lived in for years.

Wasted and abandoned

A 31-year-old man in Shenzhen known as Zen, told the mainland media outlet Shenran that he chose to hide his unemployment from his family and friends because “everywhere in this city is nei juan . I feel wasted and abandoned.”

Nei juan , is an on-trend Chinese term used to describe the endless and seemingly futile process of surviving in the workplace.

Zen’s favourite fake workplace is a coffee shop, where he can sit the whole day for a minimal cost and becomes immersed in new study materials he hopes will help him begin a new career.

Shelter and space

Another Beijing resident, Liu Jinyan, 35, became an urban drifter for the third time when he was fired last year.

He said coffee houses are the “best shelter for jobless, middle-aged people” as they offer him space to think about his future.

On mainland social media there is much discussion about the “35-year-old crisis”. Many companies reject job applicants over 35, so if they are fired around that age, it is harder for them to find new work.

On May 26, China’s so-called air con queen, Gree Electric Appliances chairwoman Dong Mingzhu, sparked controversy by saying the “35-year-old crisis” does not exist.

“If nobody recruits you again, you can start your own business,” she said.

However, many disagree and one said on Weibo: “We no longer live in an era in which you can confidently say, ‘Where there’s a will, there’s a way.’”

Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow

• Référence bibliographique

Gornostayeva Galina A. Suburbanization Problems in the USSR : the Case of Moscow . In: Espace, populations, sociétés , 1991-2. Les franges périurbaines Peri-urban fringes. pp. 349-357.

DOI : https://doi.org/10.3406/espos.1991.1474

www.persee.fr/doc/espos_0755-7809_1991_num_9_2_1474

• RIS (ProCite, Endnote, ...)

Galina A. GORNOSTAYEVA

Moscow University

Suburbanization Problems

in the USSR :

the Case of Moscow

Suburbanization processes typical to cities in Western Europe, the USA and other countries are not observed in the USSR or they are distorted to such an extent that they may not be compared with existing standards. This states the question how Soviet cities-succeeded in escaping this stage of urban development. In order to answer this question, we should first summarize the main aspects of Western suburbanization.

Firstly, it is well known that the urbanization processes are linked to structural changes in the economy. Thus the transition from the stage of concentration to this of suburbanization is associated with industrialization, and the transition to the third stage - déconcentration - is related with the rapid growth of employment in the non-industrial sphere. Secondly, a suburbanization of economic activities can be distinguished. It applies in the first place to the building and iron- working industry, transports, engineering and chemical works. These are polluting and requiring extensive areas. This suburbanization of industry is caused by the following factors: rising demand for land from firms ; worsening of transport

tions in the inner cities ; demand for lower land costs and taxation levels in suburbs ; rapid growth of road transports; state policies regulating the growth of large cities ; migration of the labour force to the suburban zones. Scientific and educational activities are also transferred from the centre to the suburbs.

The third important aspect of suburbanization applies to the population. In the suburbs two opposite flows of population meet ; one is centripetal, coming from non- metropolitan regions, the other is centrifugal, coming from the central city. The reasons for the migration to the suburbs are as follows : declining living standards in large cities (overcrowding, slow housing renewal, environmental problems, etc.); growth of motorization of the population, development of communications (telephone, telex, fax, computer) ; intensifying decentralization of working places ; lower land prices in the suburbs ; state support for the intensification of real estate development in the suburbs. The above-mentioned factors and reasons for suburbanization are altered in the Soviet cities. Let us explore them, by taking for example the largest one - Moscow.

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The ‘Mad Men’ Era Is Long Over. Why Is Advertising Still So White?

Despite corporate promises and hiring campaigns, the ad industry is among New York City’s least diverse job sectors. It shows in the work, critics say.

By Stefanos Chen

Last summer, KFC ran advertisements in Canada featuring Black people eating fried chicken and licking their fingers, their faces reflected in unused silverware.

Critics called the images racist, but the campaign was not canceled. Instead, it was submitted this spring for a prestigious industry award in New York.

Nate Nichols, the founder and creative director of Palette Group, a creative agency in Brooklyn, was one of the few Black members of the panel of judges reviewing submissions.

“My genuine response is sadness,” Mr. Nichols said. “It just means not enough of us have been able to make it into the room.”

The ad did not win, and KFC Global did not respond to requests for comment. But the episode was emblematic of a multibillion-dollar advertising industry that in at least one way still resembles the “Mad Men” era of the 1960s — namely, its lack of racial diversity.

That dearth, according to a new report, is keenly evident in New York City, the heart of the industry and also the largest advertising market in the United States. The disconnect could be costly at a time when shifts in media consumption favor younger, more diverse audiences.

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Candidate Q&A: Hawaii County Council District 8 — Holeka Goro Inaba 

"County government can play a role by incentivizing affordable housing development and further reducing real property taxes."

“County government can play a role by incentivizing affordable housing development and further reducing real property taxes.”

Editor’s note : For Hawaii’s Aug. 10 Primary Election, Civil Beat asked candidates to answer some questions about where they stand on various issues and what their priorities will be if elected.

The following came from Holeka Goro Inaba, candidate for Hawaii County Council District 8, which includes parts of Kailua; Kaloko, Kaiminani, and part of Waikoloa. The other candidate is Caryl Burns.

Go to Civil Beat’s Election Guide for general information, and check out other candidates on the Primary Election Ballot .

Candidate for Hawaii County Council District 8

Community organizations/prior offices held.

1. What is the biggest issue facing Hawaii County, and what would you do about it?

The biggest issue facing our district is the rising cost of living, impacting everything from housing to healthcare. To tackle this, I intend to introduce legislation to overhaul Chapter 11 of the Hawaii County Code, which pertains to affordable housing requirements in Hawaii County.

A comprehensive report evaluating the current language of this chapter and offering recommendations is nearing completion. We will use this report to propose revisions aimed at increasing the number of affordable housing units.

2. Overtourism can degrade the environment, threaten biodiversity, contribute to wear and tear on infrastructure, generate traffic and disrupt neighborhoods. What do you think about the amount of tourism on the Big Island and how it’s managed?

Overtourism is indeed a pressing concern on Hawaii island, given its potential for negative impacts on the environment and local communities. I believe in implementing sustainable tourism practices, such as limiting the number of visitors to sensitive areas, promoting alternative attractions and investing in eco-friendly infrastructure.

Collaborating with tour operators and implementing visitor education programs can also help manage tourism pressures effectively. Overall, the county and state should work more closely with the Hawaii Tourism Authority and the Hawaii Island Visitors Bureau to ensure that destination management plans are activated and maintained appropriately.

3. What needs to happen to relieve traffic congestion in and around Kailua-Kona and along the Puna-Keaau-Hilo corridor?

To alleviate traffic congestion in and around Kailua-Kona and along the Puna-Keaau-Hilo corridor, implementation of the county’s mass transit plan and implementation of complete street concepts is needed.

This would involve improving public transportation options, investing in road infrastructure upgrades, implementing smart traffic management systems, and encouraging alternative modes of transportation such as biking and walking.

Community engagement will continue to be essential to ensure that any proposed solutions address the needs and concerns of local residents. In addition, proposed developments and their impacts on existing infrastructure must be carefully considered as part of approval processes. 

4. The cost of living on Hawaii island is rising rapidly. How are working and middle-class people expected to buy a house or pay the rent as well as take care of other expenses? And how can the county government help?

The skyrocketing cost of living on Hawaii island is a significant challenge for working and middle-class families. County government can play a role by incentivizing affordable housing development and further reducing real property taxes for homeowners and those offering affordable rentals.

Additionally, supporting initiatives that promote economic diversification and job creation can help mitigate the impact of rising living costs.

5. Do you support the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea?

As a Native Hawaiian, I do not support the construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope on Mauna Kea, however, I support a transparent and inclusive dialogue involving all stakeholders to find a balanced solution that promotes scientific advancement for our future generations, respects Native Hawaiian rights and preserves the environment.

6. Homelessness remains a problem statewide, including on Hawaii island. What would you do to come to grips with this persistent problem?

Addressing homelessness requires a multifaceted approach that combines housing assistance, mental health services, substance abuse treatment, and job training programs.

I will continue to advocate for close monitoring of the impact and effectiveness of the over $12 million per year that the county is currently spending on programs and services that address homelessness in Hawaii County. This funding currently supports nonprofits, social service agencies and community organizations to provide comprehensive support to individuals experiencing homelessness.

Additionally, investing in affordable housing initiatives and implementing targeted outreach efforts can help prevent and reduce homelessness over the long term.

7. Half of Hawaii’s cesspools are on the Big Island, some 49,300. Seepage from cesspools can make people sick, harm coral reefs and lead to a variety of ecological damage. By law, cesspools must be upgraded to septic systems by 2050. What can be done to help people who may not be able to afford the conversion?

Upgrading cesspools is essential for protecting public health and preserving the environment. To assist those who may not be able to afford the conversion, the county can explore options such as low-interest loans, grants, and tax incentives for homeowners.

The county is actively working on a Wastewater Master Plan, which will include conversion recommendations for sewage. Additionally, providing technical assistance and coordinating with state and federal agencies can help streamline the upgrade process and ensure compliance with regulations.

8. What is the first thing Hawaii County should do to get in front of climate change rather than just reacting to it?

To address the impacts of climate change, Hawaii County should prioritize resilience planning and mitigation efforts, which it has done by creating the Office of Sustainability, Climate, Equity and Resilience.

This includes investing in renewable energy infrastructure, promoting energy efficiency measures, implementing coastal protection strategies in collaboration with community partners, and enhancing emergency preparedness and response capabilities.

Engaging with scientists, community leaders, and stakeholders is crucial for developing and implementing effective climate change policies.

9. Should the Hu Honua biomass energy plant be allowed to start operating? Why or why not?

Based on numerous public hearings and the Supreme Court’s decision, Hu Honua should not be allowed to begin operations.  

10. How would you make the county administration more transparent and accessible to the public?

To make the county administration more transparent and accessible to the public, I would like to see even greater use of self-service software and options across county processes. In addition, the administration should work to increase open data initiatives to increase accountability.

Finally, ensuring timely and comprehensive communication with residents, providing accessible information about government activities and decisions, and promoting collaboration with community organizations can help enhance transparency and trust in local government.

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Properties of Urban Soils after Decontamination Measures on the Radioactively Contaminated Territory of the City of Elektrostal

• Lipatov, D. N.
• Varachenkov, V. A.
• Manakhov, D. V.
• Agapkina, G. I.
• Shcheglov, A. I.

We studied the morphological properties, pH, organic carbon content, and specific activity of 137 Cs and natural radionuclides ( 40 K, 226 Ra, 232 Th) in the upper horizons of soils in deactivated and slightly damaged areas of the city. The studies were carried out in the urban ecosystems of the city of Elektrostal (Moscow oblast) in 2019, i.e., 6 years after local precipitation of 137 Cs due to a radiation incident. The morphological features of the upper horizons of urban soils were the following: brownish-gray color, light-loamy composition, and small-lumpy and lumpy structure, with inclusions of construction and household waste. In the upper horizons of urban quasizems and urban soils, a low carbon content (less than 1%) with high coefficients of variation were detected. In the studied urban soils, a wide range of water pH values was noted: from an acidic (4.6-5.5) to highly alkaline (>8.0) reaction. Correlation analysis showed that, in the upper horizons of UR, the content of organic carbon was reduced and alkalinization of the soil environment was observed. The accumulative type of distribution of 137 Cs was recorded for soil profiles of polluted urban ecosystems in which decontamination measures were not carried out. The profiles of urban soils that were subjected to decontamination revealed low values of the specific activity of 137 Cs in surface bulk layers and maxima in buried contaminated horizons. In the bulk horizons of UR, which include a large amount of crushed stone, there was an increase in the specific activity of 226 Ra. Some technogenic horizons of UR and TCH, consisting mainly of quartz sand, are characterized by very low values of specific activities 226 Ra and 40 K. Correlations of chemical and radiation indicators in the profiles of urban soils reflect the different compositions and properties of upper horizons formed as a result of excavation and decontamination work.

• urban soils;
• urban ecosystems;
• soil profile;
• radiation incident;
• caesium-137;
• natural radionuclides

The Dawn of Urban Civilization: Sumerian City-States and their Lasting Legacy

This essay about the ancient Sumerian city-states explores their significant contributions to human civilization. It highlights their urban planning, marked by sophisticated cities with monumental ziggurats serving as religious and administrative centers. The Sumerians’ advanced agricultural techniques and irrigation systems supported a thriving economy based on trade and craftsmanship. Cuneiform writing, developed for record-keeping, became a cornerstone of their complex administrative and legal systems, exemplified by the Code of Ur-Nammu. The essay also examines the political structure of city-states ruled by priest-kings and the integral role of religion in their society. Despite their decline around 2000 BCE, the Sumerians’ innovations in architecture, governance, and culture had a lasting impact on subsequent civilizations.

How it works

Nestled in the fertile crescent between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the ancient Sumerian city-states stand as a testament to human ingenuity and the dawn of urban civilization. Emerging around 3500 BCE, these city-states—such as Uruk, Ur, and Lagash—were the first to develop many aspects of what we now consider the hallmarks of advanced society, from writing systems and legal codes to complex trade networks and monumental architecture.

At the heart of Sumerian society was the city-state, each functioning as an independent entity with its own governance, religious institutions, and economic systems.

These city-states were remarkable for their urban planning, featuring well-defined streets, residential areas, and central ziggurats. Ziggurats were towering stepped structures that served as religious temples and community centers, the most famous being the Ziggurat of Ur. These structures symbolized the Sumerians’ architectural prowess and their belief in the gods’ central role in everyday life.

The economic backbone of Sumerian city-states was their advanced agricultural practices. Utilizing the fertile soil of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians developed sophisticated irrigation systems to manage the floodwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates. These innovations led to agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported a complex economy based on trade and craftsmanship. Sumerian farmers grew barley, wheat, and dates, and their surplus produce allowed them to engage in trade with neighboring regions, exchanging goods like textiles and pottery for metals, timber, and other raw materials.

The development of cuneiform writing was one of Sumer’s most significant contributions to human civilization. Initially used for record-keeping, cuneiform evolved to include a wide range of uses, from documenting transactions and laws to composing literature and historical records. This writing system enabled the Sumerians to create extensive archives and communicate complex ideas, laying the groundwork for future intellectual developments.

Politically, the Sumerian city-states were ruled by priest-kings known as ensi or lugal, who wielded both secular and religious authority. These leaders were considered intermediaries between the gods and the people, reflecting the theocratic nature of Sumerian governance. Each city-state had its patron deity, and the temple complex served as the religious and administrative heart of the city. The rulers’ legitimacy was often reinforced through elaborate rituals and ceremonies, highlighting the close ties between religion and governance.

The Sumerians were also pioneers in law and administration. The Code of Ur-Nammu, dating back to the early 3rd millennium BCE, is one of the earliest known law codes and provided a legal framework for resolving disputes and administering justice. This code, like others that followed, addressed issues ranging from property rights and contracts to personal injury and family law, reflecting the complexities of urban life in Sumer.

Culturally, the Sumerians were prolific creators. Their literature, exemplified by the Epic of Gilgamesh, delved into themes of heroism, mortality, and the human condition, offering insights into their worldview. Art and sculpture flourished, with intricate carvings and statues depicting gods, kings, and everyday scenes. The Sumerians also developed the use of cylinder seals, which were rolled onto clay to leave an impression, serving as both art and practical tools for marking property and documents.

Religious belief was the cornerstone of Sumerian culture, permeating every aspect of life. The Sumerians believed in a pantheon of gods who controlled natural forces and human destiny. Each city-state worshipped its own set of deities, with temples and ziggurats serving as the focal points of religious activity. Priests held significant power, overseeing rituals, offerings, and the maintenance of temple complexes. Religious festivals and ceremonies were integral to maintaining social cohesion and appeasing the gods, ensuring the community’s prosperity.

The decline of the Sumerian city-states around 2000 BCE was precipitated by a combination of internal strife, environmental changes, and external invasions. The Akkadians, led by Sargon the Great, conquered many Sumerian city-states and established the Akkadian Empire. Later, the Amorites, who founded the Babylonian Empire, absorbed the remnants of Sumerian civilization. Despite their decline, the legacy of the Sumerians endured, influencing subsequent cultures in Mesopotamia and beyond.

The impact of Sumerian civilization on human history is profound. Their innovations in writing, law, urban planning, and governance laid the foundations for future societies. The Sumerians’ ability to create thriving urban centers in a challenging environment speaks to their resourcefulness and adaptability. Their achievements in agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship set the stage for the economic systems that followed, while their cultural and intellectual contributions continue to be studied and admired.

In conclusion, the Sumerian city-states were more than just the first urban civilizations; they were the progenitors of many aspects of modern society. From their impressive architectural feats and complex governance systems to their pioneering efforts in writing and law, the Sumerians set a precedent for future civilizations to follow. Studying their history provides valuable insights into the origins of urban life and the enduring impact of early human innovation. The legacy of the Sumerians remains a testament to the enduring spirit of human creativity and resilience.

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The Dawn of Urban Civilization: Sumerian City-States and Their Lasting Legacy. (2024, Jun 17). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/the-dawn-of-urban-civilization-sumerian-city-states-and-their-lasting-legacy/

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PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Dawn of Urban Civilization: Sumerian City-States and Their Lasting Legacy . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-dawn-of-urban-civilization-sumerian-city-states-and-their-lasting-legacy/ [Accessed: 19 Jun. 2024]

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"The Dawn of Urban Civilization: Sumerian City-States and Their Lasting Legacy," PapersOwl.com , 17-Jun-2024. [Online]. Available: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-dawn-of-urban-civilization-sumerian-city-states-and-their-lasting-legacy/. [Accessed: 19-Jun-2024]

PapersOwl.com. (2024). The Dawn of Urban Civilization: Sumerian City-States and Their Lasting Legacy . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/the-dawn-of-urban-civilization-sumerian-city-states-and-their-lasting-legacy/ [Accessed: 19-Jun-2024]

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