critical thinking and college students

Critical thinking for college, career, and citizenship

Subscribe to the center for universal education bulletin, diane f. halpern dfh diane f. halpern diane f. halpern is the dean of social sciences, emerita at the minerva schools at kgi and a past president of the american psychological association and the society for teaching of psychology. diane has published hundreds of articles and many books including, thought and knowledge: an introduction to critical thinking (5th ed., 2014); sex differences in cognitive abilities (4th ed.), and women at the top: powerful leaders tell us how to combine work and family (co-authored with fanny cheung). her other recent books include psychological science (5th ed. with michael gazzaniga and todd heatherton) and the edited book, undergraduate education in psychology: a blueprint for the future of the discipline..

May 26, 2016

Editor’s note: In the “ Becoming Brilliant ” blog series, experts explore the six competencies that reflect how children learn and grow as laid out by Kathy Hirsh-Pasek and Roberta Golinkoff in their new book  “ Becoming Brilliant .”

Education is about the future—students learn in schools and other places based on two underlying assumptions: (a) What they learn today will be recalled sometime in the future when the knowledge is needed, and (b) today’s learning will transfer across time, place, and space. Teachers are preparing students for higher levels of education, careers that may not even exist today, and the increasingly complex world of citizenship—voting intelligently, recognizing, and supporting good options for societal problems. With the amount of information increasing exponentially and new information often replacing what we formerly believed to be true, the twin abilities of learning well and thinking critically are essential skills for students at every level.

But what does it mean to think critically?

Critical thinking is using the skills or strategies that that are most likely to lead to a desired outcome. It is purposeful, reasoned, and goal-directed. It is the sort of thinking we should be engaging in when deciding what and whom to believe, which of two job offers to accept, or whether vaccinations really do cause autism. It is different from, but often relies upon, simple recall (e.g., what does five plus seven equal?), unsupported opinions (e.g., I like vanilla ice cream), and automated actions (e.g., stopping at a red light).

Critical thinking has two main components: understanding information at a deep, meaningful level, and overcoming fallacies and biases. For example, suppose you are learning about a new theory. You could learn to recite the definition of the theory with little meaning (e.g., photosynthesis is a process used by plants to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water using sunlight) or you could process it at a deeper level. There are many learning activities that facilitate deep level processing. For example, you could write out the theory in your own words, explain it to someone who is not familiar with it, and provide evidence for (and possibly against) the theory. What is it explaining? What theory is it replacing (if applicable)? What is its history? How could it be applied to an everyday problem?  If you could answer these questions, the theory would become easier to recall, and you could use it to generate new theories or see flaws or strengths in other theories. Argument analysis is another example of deep processing. Critical thinkers learn to identify the conclusion, the evidence, and reasoning used to support the conclusion. They also look for assumptions, counterevidence, and limiting conditions (times when the conclusion may not apply).

Some educators prefer to consider critical thinking as “debiasing” or recognizing and resisting fallacies. Suppose someone asks you if children become brilliant because of their nature or nurture. This is an example of the “either-or” fallacy, and anyone who is trained to recognize it can avoid its pitfalls. Similarly, critical thinkers recognize when correlational data are being used to make causal claims. For example, an article in the Los Angeles Times told readers that if they want their children to get good grades they should make sure that their kids’ friends get good grades. But after reading the article, it was apparent that children with good grades had friends with good grades, and children with poor grades had friends with poor grades. But nowhere did it show that kids with poor grades would improve by friending kids with good grades. The data were correlational, which any critical thinker should recognize.

If you are thinking critically, and I hope you are, you may be wondering: Can we teach students to be better thinkers? The answer is a resounding “yes.” There is a large amount of research literature (reviewed in my book, “Thought and Knowledge: An Introduction to Critical Thinking”). In one project that I conducted with a doctoral student, who is now Dr. Lisa Marin, we went into very low-performing high schools in California. There were several studies, some that involved parents and some in which classes were assigned at random with different critical thinking instruction. We found that when critical thinking skills were deliberately taught (not as an ancillary to other content), students improved in their abilities to think critically. There are many studies showing substantial gains in critical thinking in college students, the military, and other populations as well. Critical thinking can be taught at any grade, as long as it is taught in a way that is developmentally appropriate.

Finally, critical thinking has a self-reflective component. Good thinkers consider the steps of problem solving, how they are mentally approaching a problem, and the quality of their conclusion or solution.  

Those who care about the future for today’s children understand that the jobs of the future will require the ability to think critically. So let’s be sure that our students are ready for college, careers, and citizenship by including deliberate instruction in critical thinking. It is probably the most difficult topic to teach and learn, but it is also the most important.

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Developing Critical Thinking

• Posted January 10, 2018
• By Iman Rastegari

In a time where deliberately false information is continually introduced into public discourse, and quickly spread through social media shares and likes, it is more important than ever for young people to develop their critical thinking. That skill, says Georgetown professor William T. Gormley, consists of three elements: a capacity to spot weakness in other arguments, a passion for good evidence, and a capacity to reflect on your own views and values with an eye to possibly change them. But are educators making the development of these skills a priority?

"Some teachers embrace critical thinking pedagogy with enthusiasm and they make it a high priority in their classrooms; other teachers do not," says Gormley, author of the recent Harvard Education Press release The Critical Advantage: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in School . "So if you are to assess the extent of critical-thinking instruction in U.S. classrooms, you’d find some very wide variations." Which is unfortunate, he says, since developing critical-thinking skills is vital not only to students' readiness for college and career, but to their civic readiness, as well.

"It's important to recognize that critical thinking is not just something that takes place in the classroom or in the workplace, it's something that takes place — and should take place — in our daily lives," says Gormley.

In this edition of the Harvard EdCast, Gormley looks at the value of teaching critical thinking, and explores how it can be an important solution to some of the problems that we face, including "fake news."

About the Harvard EdCast

The Harvard EdCast is a weekly series of podcasts, available on the Harvard University iT unes U page, that features a 15-20 minute conversation with thought leaders in the field of education from across the country and around the world. Hosted by Matt Weber and co-produced by Jill Anderson, the Harvard EdCast is a space for educational discourse and openness, focusing on the myriad issues and current events related to the field.

An education podcast that keeps the focus simple: what makes a difference for learners, educators, parents, and communities

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Applying Critical and Creative Thinking Skills in College and Everyday Life

Sue Carson, former director of TH!NK and professor of plant and microbial biology, discusses the importance of critical and creative thinking skills in college and everyday life.

By Alison Krowiak, DASA Assessment

This article is part of a series on NC State’s Pack Proficiencies, which include the five skills NC State faculty think all NC State undergraduates should develop before they graduate: written communication, oral communication, quantitative literacy, critical thinking, and creative thinking. 

At NC State, critical and creative thinking are a key part of how we Think and Do the Extraordinary. Critical thinking is the active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief or form of knowledge. Every time students use evidence to form judgements, analyze the ideas or conditions that support conclusions, and evaluate their own thinking, they engage their critical thinking skills.

Creative thinking is just as important and involves the generation of new ideas within or across disciplines. It can draw upon or break the rules in an effort to bring together existing ideas into a new configuration. The ability to think of creative solutions is utilized in every major program at NC State and in every field our students enter upon graduation.

Like all the Pack Proficiencies, these essential skills are taught in General Education classes and reinforced throughout each major program. Sue Carson, professor of plant and microbial biology and former director of the TH!NK program, describes the value for every NC State student in developing their critical and creative thinking competencies. Interview excerpts are edited for brevity and clarity.

How are critical and creative thinking competencies defined?

When I think about critical and creative thinking, I think of them as very intertwined. It often starts with raising a new question or formulating a new problem, gathering and assessing information, coming up with multiple alternative ideas for how to approach the question or how to approach the problem. It involves considering alternatives of the problem, reaching conclusions and effectively communicating about them. Other important aspects of critical and creative thinking include intellectual risk-taking and self-reflection along each stage of the process.

Why should NC States develop proficiencies in critical and creative thinking?

In all of our disciplines, and in all of our careers, to be a leader you need to be a creative thinker. You have to be able to identify problems and questions, and be able to figure out solutions. Even in our everyday lives, critical and creative thinking is so important. Questions like, “Who are you going to vote for in the next election? What daycare are you going to choose for your children? What phone are you going to buy?” all require those skills.

How can students develop their critical and creative thinking skills?

I think that most people understand that critical thinking is a skill that can be developed through practice and feedback. But there’s a misconception that creativity is something that’s innate, and that’s just not true. Creativity is a cognitive process that you can develop through practice and feedback. Creativity is also not confined to the arts. Fields in science, engineering, social sciences, and more need to be creative. We all need to be creative in our lives every day, and it is a skill that we can develop.

How can students develop their critical thinking skills inside and outside the classroom?

When students are selecting their classes, they can choose courses that are more geared toward project-based work. I think that is a good way for students to get feedback on their critical and creative thinking. There are a lot of opportunities outside the class as well. Engaging in undergraduate research is one way. Another way would be service learning projects that allow students to make decisions and have ownership of that project. If the student is able to have ownership and make decisions and identify the questions and problems, it can help develop critical and creative thinking. There is a whole range of opportunities that allow you to do that at NC State.

To learn more about the Pack Proficiencies and how they are assessed, visit go.ncsu.edu/PackProficiencies .

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Improving Critical Thinking Skills in College Students

by Matthew Mahavongtrakul | Mar 6, 2020 | 390X

Erica M. Leung, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

“People grow best where they continuously experience an ingenious blend of support and challenge.” -Robert Kegan 1

Cognitive Development of College Students

Most students enter college with the notion that there are right and wrong answers and the road to knowledge is straightforward. 2 Students undergo significant cognitive growth during college, shifting their view of knowledge from objective duality to subjective multiplicity (i.e. there are various opinions, which are all valid). 2 By the time of their graduation, few students reach the cognitive stage of relativism (i.e. not all opinions are equally valid, so facts and context matter), which relies heavily on critical thinking skills to make judgments. 2

This may come as a surprise as instructors tend to expect students to have the same cognitive abilities and critical thinking skills as they do. Instead, college students are just learning how to reframe knowledge. With this in mind, instructors need to meet students where they are in their cognitive development and guide them through the process. A short epistemological belief survey may help in determining students’ stage of cognitive development.

Techniques for Developing Critical Thinking Skills

What is critical thinking? Can it be taught in the classroom? How is it measured? How can instructors help students navigate the road to independent critical thinking? Here are a few promising approaches to facilitate and encourage critical thinking:

• Collaborative learning wherein students learn from each other and work together using activities like discussion boards, case studies, role playing, peer teaching, and group projects. This technique exposes students to different interpretations of information and the diversity of fellow students’ experiences and knowledge. Collaborative learning allows students to discuss information, clarify ideas, and evaluate the validity of others’ ideas in a safe and positive environment. 3-5
• Higher-level thinking questions that prompt students to answer questions like whether they “agree or disagree” and “why”. Well-written questions will challenge students to interpret, analyze, and recognize assumptions before reaching a conclusion. 6 Examples of different levels of questions according to Bloom’s Taxonomy can be viewed here .
• Reflective written assignments that ask students to apply their experiences to different concepts, allowing students to play a more active role in their learning and self-growth. These reflections can encourage students to identify the relevance of the information to their own lives, question the information’s validity, and seek better sources. 6-8 A framework for reflective writing that can help guide students through the process can be found here .
• Open-book assessments that allow students to use notes, textbooks, and/or other resources. These foster intellectual engagement with the material instead of rote memorization, cramming, and anxiety before the exam. Since students are afforded more resources, instructors have an opportunity to ask higher level questions. Overall, these types of assessments simulate a more real-world environment, which promotes problem solving over recall. 9

Although there is debate on its definition, critical thinking is an important outcome of higher education and is highly valued by employers. It is therefore up to the instructor to incorporate ways to improve critical thinking in their students to prepare them for their futures.

• Kegan, R. In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1994). 
• Black, S. & Allen, J. D. Part 3: College Student Development. TRL 58 , 214-228 (2017). 
• Loes, C. N. & Pascarella, E. T. Collaborative Learning and Critical Thinking: Testing the Link. J. High. Educ. 88 , 726-753 (2017). 
• Gokhale, A. A. Collaborative Learning Enhances Critical Thinking. J. Technol. Educ. 7 , 22-30 (1995). 
• Szabo, Z. & Schwartz, J. Learning methods for teacher education: the use of online discussions to improve critical thinking. Technol. Pedagog. Educ. 20 , 79-94 (2011). 
• Walker, S. E. Active Learning Strategies to Promote Critical Thinking. J. Athl. Train. 38 , 263-267 (2003). 
• Mintzberg, H. & Gosling, J. Educating Managers Beyond Borders. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 1 , 64-76 (2002).
• Naber, J. & Wyatt, T. H. The effect of reflective writing interventions on the critical thinking skills and dispositions of baccalaureate nursing students. Educ. Today 34 , 67-72 (2014). 
• Johans, B., Dinkens, A., & Moore, J. A systematic review comparing open-book and closed-book examinations: Evaluating effects on development of critical thinking skills. Nurse Educ. Pract. 27 , 89-94 (2017).

Matthew Mahavongtrakul edited this post on March 6th, 2020.

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College and University Students

Why Critical Thinking?

"As grads look to the future, they're all thinking one thing: Hire us...In general, students in fields that require critical thinking skills, problem-solving, and face-to-face contact will fare best in this new economy, no matter where they look for jobs", said Jim Kurre, associate professor of economics at Penn State Behrend and director of the Economic Research Institute of Erie. Erie Times News, PA  - May 20, 2008 "Employers report that such applied skills as critical thinking, teamwork, and effective communication are essential to the preparation for today’s workplace"... Tom Pauken East Texas Review, TX - Jun 11, 2008

Studying the following articles and pages will help you build a stronger understanding of the core concepts in critical thinking

• Becoming a Critic Of Your Thinking
• Glossary of Critical Thinking Terms
• Universal Intellectual Standards
• Valuable Intellectual Traits
• Distinguishing Between Inferences and Assumptions
• Thinking With Concepts

In addition to the basic review of the definition and concept of critical thinking , the following pages and articles are recommended reading for the college, university or pre-collegiate student.

It’s Time to Get Serious About Teaching Critical Thinking

By  Jonathan Haber

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For close to 50 years, educators and politicians from classrooms to the Oval Office have stressed the importance of graduating students who are skilled critical thinkers.

Content that once had to be drilled into students’ heads is now just a phone swipe away, but the ability to make sense of that information requires thinking critically about it. Similarly, our democracy is today imperiled not by lack of access to data and opinions about the most important issues of the day, but rather by our inability to sort the true from the fake (or hopelessly biased).

We have certainly made progress in critical-thinking education over the last five decades. Courses dedicated to the subject can be found in the catalogs of many colleges and universities, while the latest generation of K-12 academic standards emphasize not just content but also the skills necessary to think critically about content taught in English, math, science and social studies classes.

Despite this progress, 75 percent of employers claim the students they hire after 12, 16 or more years of formal education lack the ability to think critically and solve problems -- despite the fact that nearly all educators claim to prioritize helping students develop those very skills. Those statistics were included in Academically Adrift , the 2011 book by Richard Arum and Josipa Roksa, which caused a stir when the authors asserted that students made little to no progress in critical-thinking ability during their college years.

With perils mounting, many of them attributable to too little critical thinking about the subjects that matter most, we clearly must do more to ensure today’s students become tomorrow’s skilled thinkers. Fortunately, we are in a position to do so without having to overturn the current higher education system or break the bank.

What Do We Mean by ‘Critical Thinking’?

One barrier that has kept us from making more progress in critical-thinking education over the last several decades is the perception that we still do not understand the concept well enough to determine how teaching critical-thinking skills can be integrated into the curriculum.

That paralysis derives partly from debates within the critical-thinking community over how the term should be defined. But such debates, while thoughtful and constructive, should not obscure the fact that there is widespread consensus regarding what skills constitute critical thinking, as well as substantial research on how those skills can be taught successfully.

For example, critical thinking involves thinking in a structured way. The term commonly used to describe this form of productive, structured thinking is “logic,” but logic describes a number of systems for reasoning systematically.

Formal logic reduces words and ideas to symbols that can be manipulated, for instance, much like numbers and symbols used in mathematics. While formal logic is extraordinarily powerful (just ask any computer programmer), we can also systematize our reasoning using informal logic that allows us to consider the meaning of words rather than reducing them to symbols fit into a structure. There are also a number of graphical systems for mapping out logical relationships, some of them easy enough to be picked up by young learners, that can be applied to any content area.

Since most of the communication we need to think critically about involves everyday human language, rather than machine code, skilled critical thinkers must also be adept at translating spoken and written language into precise statements that can be built into a logical structure. This translation process is as much art as science, but with practice, students can perform this kind of translation on anything from historic or literary documents to scientific ideas and mathematical proofs.

When those translated precise statements are built into a logical structure, you have an argument -- the basic unit of reasoning. Arguments can be found in political speeches, editorials and advertisements, as well as in communication across STEM fields, and the rules for analyzing the quality of arguments have been in place for more than 2,000 years.

Structured arguments play a special role in highlighting the importance of reasons for belief (called a warrant in logical argumentation), which gives students the ability to understand why true premises can lead to a false conclusion -- rather than labor under the misconception that the world consists of facts that can be true or false, with everything else falling into the category of opinion (or worse, “just an opinion”).

Another myth that has slowed down integrating critical-thinking instruction more deeply into the curriculum is fear that teaching skills, including critical-thinking skills, must come at the expense of teaching academic content. Yet one cannot think critically about a subject one knows nothing about. Since background knowledge , including knowledge of content related to the academic disciplines, is a vital part of being a critical thinker, understanding content and thinking critically about it do not need to come into conflict.

While people continue to be debate the role of elements such as creativity in the critical-thinking process, there is a general consensus, going back to the earliest definitions of the term, that the concept includes three interconnecting elements: knowledge (for example, knowledge of one or more logical systems), skills (such as skills in applying that logical system to construct and analyze arguments) and dispositions (such as the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures).

Teaching Students to Think Critically

Just as enough consensus exists about what critical thinking is, so too we have adequate agreement regarding how critical thinking is best taught. Research shows that elements of critical thinking need to be taught explicitly , rather than assumed to come along for the ride when thoughtful teachers run through complex material with students. As mentioned previously, nearly all college professors prioritize developing their students’ critical-thinking abilities, but to move from aspiration to progress, they must marry this priority to practices that make critical-thinking instruction explicit within a discipline.

For example, mathematics is a subject where students are continually introduced to examples of deductive reasoning in the form of mathematical proofs. Yet how many math professors use this opportunity to explicitly introduce students to principles of deductive reasoning, or contrast deductive with inductive logic (the primary mode of reasoning used in science)? Similarly, activities involving informational reading and argumentative writing provide ideal opportunities to introduce students in college writing classes to logical arguments in which evidence (in the form of premises of an argument) leads to a conclusion and how those arguments can be tested for validity, soundness, strength and weakness.

As it turns out, the number of critical-thinking topics professors and students need to understand is relatively small, certainly compared to the much larger body of content that students need to master in an English, math, science or history course. For students to develop as critical thinkers, however, they must put that knowledge to work through deliberate practice that specifically focuses on development of critical-thinking skills. That can be accomplished through carefully designed activities and assignments that provide students opportunities to practice applying critical-thinking principles to answer questions and solve problems specific to academic content areas.

The previous example of a math professor contrasting deductive and inductive reasoning and explaining what each form of reasoning brings to different disciplines demonstrates the potential for critical-thinking skills to transfer between academic domains. Since critical thinking is universally applicable, faculty members can also use examples and deliberate practice exercises to show students how they can apply critical-thinking techniques to issues outside class, such as how to systematically make decisions regarding college or work or how to avoid manipulation by politicians and advertisers.

One critical-thinking researcher has proposed that becoming a skilled critical thinker requires the same amount of practice required to become a highly skilled athlete or musician: approximately 10,000 hours. If this suggestion is even partially correct, it points out a problem, since no single class, or even years of education, can provide this amount of dedicated practice time.

That is why professors must not just teach students critical-thinking skills and give them opportunities to put them to use, but they must also inspire them to continue practicing those skills on their own across academic subjects and in all areas of life. Given that thinking is something we do every waking hour and does not require practice fields, instruments or special equipment, inspired students can apply the critical-thinking skills they learn in class to improve their grades and make better decisions in life, reinforcing their value and creating a virtuous cycle of continuous use.

High-Leverage Critical Thinking Teaching Practices

The techniques I’ve described above -- explicit instruction on critical-thinking principles and techniques, deliberate practice opportunities that put those techniques to work, encouraging transfer between domains, and inspiring students to practice thinking critically on their own -- all represent high-leverage critical-thinking practices applicable to any domain. Such practices can be applied to focused content areas, highlighting the fact that integrating critical-thinking practices into the curriculum does not need to crowd out other activities college instructors have used for years.

Concrete methods for improving student critical-thinking ability can help colleges and universities, including liberal arts schools struggling in an era emphasizing STEM and career-oriented majors like business, define their mission as the place where the most vital 21st-century skills are explicitly taught, practiced and mastered. One major where a new emphasis on practical critical-thinking skills development can have a double impact is education, where students enrolled in undergraduate and graduate teacher-preparation programs can be taught using high-leverage critical-thinking practices they can then bring into the classroom as they enter jobs in K-12 schools.

Changing colleges to embrace both methods and a culture of critical thinking does not require overhauling education, eliminating courses or even asking professors to sacrifice approaches they have developed and used successfully. It simply involves adding new tools to their arsenal that allow them to accomplish what they already wholeheartedly support: helping students develop the skills needed to think critically about the world.

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Chapter 8: Thinking, Communicating & Problem-Solving

Critical thinking & problem-solving, assess your critical thinking strategies.

• Visit the Quia Critical Thinking Quiz page and click on Start Now (you don’t need to enter your name).
• Select the best answer for each question, and then click on Submit Answers. A score of 70 percent or better on this quiz is considered passing.
• Based on the content of the questions, do you feel you use good critical thinking strategies in college? In what ways could you improve as a critical thinker?

The essence of the independent mind lies not in what it thinks, but in how it thinks. —Christopher Hitchens, author and journalist

Critical Thinking

As a college student, you are tasked with engaging and expanding your thinking skills. One of the most important of these skills is critical thinking. Critical thinking is important because it relates to nearly all tasks, situations, topics, careers, environments, challenges, and opportunities. It’s a discipline-general thinking skill, not a thinking skill that’s reserved for a one subject alone or restricted to a particular content area. Of all your thinking skills, critical thinking may have the greatest value.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is clear, reasonable, reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do. It means asking probing questions like, “How do we know?” or “Is this true in every case or just in this instance?” It involves being skeptical and challenging assumptions, rather than simply memorizing facts or blindly accepting what you hear or read. Critical thinking skills will help you in any profession or any circumstance of life, from science to art to business to teaching.

Critical thinkers are curious and reflective people. They explore and probe new areas and seek knowledge, clarification, and solutions. They ask pertinent questions, evaluate statements and arguments, and distinguish between facts and opinion. They are also willing to examine their own beliefs, possessing a manner of humility that allows them to admit lack of knowledge or understanding when needed. Critical thinkers are open to changing their mind. Perhaps most of all, they actively enjoy learning and view seeking new knowledge as a lifelong pursuit.

Thinking critically will help you develop more balanced arguments, express yourself clearly, read more critically, and glean important information efficiently. With critical thinking, you become a clearer thinker and problem solver.

The following video, from Lawrence Bland, presents the major concepts and benefits of critical thinking.

The Role of Logic in Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is fundamentally a process of questioning information and data. You may question the information you read in a textbook, or you may question what a politician or a professor or a classmate says. You can also question a commonly-held belief or a new idea. With critical thinking, anything and everything is subject to question and examination for the purpose of logically constructing reasoned perspectives.

The word logic comes from the Ancient Greek logike , referring to the science or art of reasoning. Using logic, a person evaluates arguments and reasoning and strives to distinguish between good and bad reasoning or between truth and falsehood. Using logic, you can evaluate ideas or claims people make, make good decisions, and form sound beliefs about the world. [1] . Logical thinkers provide reasonable and appropriate evidence to support their claims, acknowledge the strengths of the opposing side’s position, actively investigate a variety of possible outcomes or new solutions, and use measured and objective language to present their positions.

Clarify Thinking

When you use critical thinking to evaluate information, you need to clarify your thinking to yourself and likely to others. Doing this well is mainly a process of asking and answering logical, probing questions. Design your questions to fit your needs, but be sure to cover adequate ground.

• What is the purpose?
• What question are we trying to answer?
• What point of view is being expressed?
• What assumptions are we or others making?
• What are the facts and data we know, and how do we know them?
• What are the concepts we’re working with?
• What are the conclusions, and do they make sense?
• What are the implications?

Avoid Fallacies

You’ll also want to make sure you can avoid and spot logical fallacies. Fallacies are faults in thinking or illogical approaches used to persuade the other side. Statements such as, everyone else is doing it ca n be very persuasive even though they demonstrate faulty logic, in this case, the bandwagon appeal. These fallacies can undermine your authority and weaken your position. Students shouldn’t park in the faculty lot because that lot is for faculty is another example of a logical fallacy, this time circular reasoning.

Consult the two websites below to identify and avoid some of the many kinds of logical fallacies:

• Fallacies Files—Home
• Logical Fallacies Jeopardy

Applying critical thinking

The following questions may apply to formulating a logical, reasoned perspective in the scenario below or any other situation:

• What is happening? Gather the basic information and begin to think of questions.
• Why is it important? Ask yourself why it’s significant and whether or not you agree.
• What don’t I see? Is there anything important missing?
• How do I know? Ask yourself where the information came from and how it was constructed.
• Who is saying it? What’s the position of the speaker and what is influencing them?
• What else? What if? What other ideas exist and are there other possibilities?

A man has a Ph.D. in political science, and he works as a professor at a local college. His wife works at the college, too. They have three young children in the local school system, and their family is well known in the community. The man is now running for political office.

Are his credentials and experience sufficient for entering public office? Will he be effective in political office? Some voters might believe that his personal life and current job, on the surface, suggest he will do well in the position, and they will vote for him. In truth, the characteristics described don’t guarantee that the man will do a good job. The information is somewhat irrelevant.

What else might you want to know? How about whether the man had already held a political office and done a good job? In this case, we want to ask, How much information is adequate in order to make a decision based on logic instead of assumptions?

Problem-Solving with Critical Thinking

For most people, a typical day is filled with critical thinking and problem-solving challenges. In fact, critical thinking and problem-solving go hand-in-hand. They both refer to using knowledge, facts, and data to solve problems effectively, but with problem-solving, you are specifically identifying, selecting, and defending your solution.

Applying the strategies described in the action checklist below can help you utilize critical thinking skills to solve problems.

Problem-solving can be an efficient and rewarding process, especially if you are organized and mindful of critical steps and strategies. Remember, too, to assume the attributes of a good critical thinker. If you are curious, reflective, knowledge-seeking, open to change, probing, organized, and ethical, your challenge or problem will be less of a hurdle, and you’ll be in a good position to find intelligent solutions.

 Developing Yourself As a Critical Thinker and Problem-Solver

Critical thinking is a fundamental skill for college students, but it should also be a lifelong pursuit that we continually refine. Below are additional strategies to develop yourself as a critical thinker in college and in everyday life:

• Reflect and practice : Always reflect on what you’ve learned. Is it true all the time? How did you arrive at your conclusions?
• Use wasted time : It’s certainly important to make time for relaxing, but if you find you are indulging in too much of a good thing, think about using your time more constructively. Determine when you do your best thinking and try to learn something new during that part of the day.
• Redefine the way you see things : It can be very uninteresting to always think the same way. Challenge yourself to see familiar things in new ways. Put yourself in someone else’s shoes and consider a certain situation from a different angle or perspective. If you’re trying to solve a problem, list all your concerns, such as what you need in order to solve it, who can help, and what some possible barriers might be. It’s often possible to reframe a problem as an opportunity. Try to find a solution where there seems to be none.
• Analyze the influences on your thinking and in your life : Why do you think or feel the way you do? Analyze your influences. Think about who in your life influences you. Do you feel or react a certain way because of social convention or because you believe it is what is expected of you? Try to break out of any molds that may be constricting you.
• Express yourself : Critical thinking also involves being able to express yourself clearly. Most important in expressing yourself clearly is stating one point at a time. You might be inclined to argue every thought, but you might have greater impact if you focus only on your main arguments. This will help others to follow your thinking clearly. For more abstract ideas, assume that your audience may not understand. Provide examples, analogies, or metaphors where you can.
• Enhance your wellness : It’s easier to think critically when you take care of your mental and physical health. Try taking 10-minute activity breaks to reach 30 to 60 minutes of physical activity each day . Try taking a break between classes and walk to the coffee shop that’s farthest away. Scheduling physical activity into your day can help lower stress and increase mental alertness.
• Do your most difficult work when you have the most energy: Think about the time of day you are most effective and have the most energy. Plan to do your most difficult thinking during these times.

Reflect on Critical Thinking

• Think about someone whom you consider to be a critical thinker (friend, professor, historical figure, etc). What qualities does he/she have?
• Review some of the critical thinking strategies discussed on this page. Choose one strategy that makes sense to you. How can you apply this critical thinking technique to your academic work?
• Habits of mind are attitudes and beliefs that influence how you approach the world (inquiring attitude, open mind, respect for truth, etc.). What is one habit of mind you would like to actively develop over the next year? How will you develop a daily practice to cultivate this habit?

Cultivate Critical Habits of Mind

Earlier in this text we discussed, “habits of mind,” the personal commitments, values, and standards people have about the principle of good thinking. Consider your intellectual commitments, values, and standards. Do you approach problems with an open mind, a respect for truth, and an inquiring attitude? Some good habits to have when thinking critically are being receptive to having your opinions changed, having respect for others, being independent and not accepting something is true until you’ve had the time to examine the available evidence. Other important habits of mind include being fair-minded, having respect for a reason, having an inquiring mind, not making assumptions, and always, especially, questioning your own conclusions. In their quest towards developing an intellectual work ethic, critical thinkers constantly try to work these qualities into their daily lives.

 problem-solving with critical thinking

Below are some examples of using critical thinking to problem-solve. Can you think of additional action steps to apply to the following situations? You may want to look back to Chapter 2 “Defining Goals” to utilize the five step problem solving strategy described there.

• Your roommate was upset and said some unkind words to you, which has put a crimp in the relationship. You try to see through the angry behaviors to determine how you might best support your roommate and help bring the relationship back to a comfortable spot.
• Your campus club has been languishing on account of lack of participation and funds. The new club president, though, is a marketing major and has identified some strategies to interest students in joining and supporting the club. Implementation is forthcoming.
• Your final art class project challenges you to conceptualize form in new ways. On the last day of class when students present their projects, you describe the techniques you used to fulfill the assignment. You explain why and how you selected that approach.
• Your math teacher sees that the class is not quite grasping a concept. She uses clever questioning to dispel anxiety and guide you to new understanding of the concept.
• You have a job interview for a position that you feel you are only partially qualified for, although you really want the job and you are excited about the prospects. You analyze how you will explain your skills and experiences in a way to show that you are a good match for the prospective employer.
• You are doing well in college, and most of your college and living expenses are covered. But there are some gaps between what you want and what you feel you can afford. You analyze your income, savings, and budget to better calculate what you will need to stay in college and maintain your desired level of spending.
• "logike." Wordnik. n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016. ↵
• "Student Success-Thinking Critically In Class and Online."  Critical Thinking Gateway . St Petersburg College, n.d. Web. 16 Feb 2016. ↵
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• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

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Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
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Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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The Relationship Between Study Engagement and Critical Thinking Among Higher Vocational College Students in China: A Longitudinal Study

1 Institute of Education, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, People’s Republic of China

2 School of Modern Logistics, Qingdao Harbor Vocational and Technical College, Qingdao, People’s Republic of China

Chunmei Chen

3 Teachers College, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian, 361021, People’s Republic of China

4 Department of Tourism, Fudan University, Shanghai, People’s Republic of China

5 School of Marine Culture and Law, Jimei University, Xiamen, Fujian, People’s Republic of China

Numerous cross-sectional studies have explored the correlation between study engagement and critical thinking, but the relationship between the development of these two key variables over time is unclear and the causal relationship between them remains controversial. In this study, we examined the developmental trajectories of and the interplay between study engagement and critical thinking.

We used a questionnaire method to follow 654 first-year students in Chinese higher vocational college over a period of one year and three times, of which 231 (35.321%) were male and 423 (64.679%) were female, with an average age of 18.11 years. Descriptive statistics were used to present general characteristics of the study participants, and latent growth model was used to explore the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking, and to explore the interplay between study engagement and critical thinking from a developmental perspective. Based on this, a cross-lagged model was used to verify the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking.

During the first year of higher vocational college in China, students’ levels of study engagement and critical thinking declined continuously. The initial level and development of study engagement can positively influence the initial level and development of critical thinking, respectively, while the initial level and development of critical thinking can in turn positively influence the initial level and development of study engagement, respectively. Study engagement and critical thinking can predict each other.

The above results help researchers and educators to develop study engagement and critical thinking in higher vocational college students from a developmental perspective. The development of either aspect of study engagement and critical thinking can contribute to the joint improvement of both.

Introduction

Critical thinking is one of the necessary skills for the 21st century, 1 which has become a globally recognized goal for higher education. 2 Driven by rapid advances in science and technology and economic globalization, now more than ever before, college graduates are expected to have critical thinking skills to cope with the changing and complex work environment and higher job requirements of the 21st century. 3 , 4 Critical thinking plays an important part in individual’s logical thinking, representing both an individual’s ability to make rational decisions and perform self-examination, and a purposeful higher-order rational thinking process. 5 Numerous studies have found that critical thinking is not only effective in enhancing individuals’ problem-solving skills, 6 metacognition, 7 facilitating the learning process, 8 and preparing them for future careers. 9 Meanwhile, critical thinking helps students to make informed decisions in their daily lives, gain success in this ever-changing world, 10 and achieve higher earnings. 11 In view of the positive effects of critical thinking on individual development, researchers have sought to explore and identify the factors that can influence an individual’s level of critical thinking. Among the many influencing factors, there is a significantly positive correlation between an individual’s study engagement in the learning process and critical thinking; the more students are engaged in the learning process, the higher level of critical thinking they are likely to have. 12

Although there is a correlation between study engagement and critical thinking, our understanding of the relationship between these two factors remains deficient. To begin with, the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking, and the interactions between the two deserve empirical research. Although study engagement and critical thinking are stable characteristics that students possess, some studies have found that study engagement and critical thinking would change with age. 13 , 14 This suggests that these two factors may interact with each other over time. Second, because of the lack of longitudinal studies on study engagement and critical thinking, we do not have a clear understanding of the causal relationship between the two. Existing cross-sectional studies on this topic suggest that findings on the predicted direction between study engagement and critical thinking are inconsistent. 12 , 15–17 It remains unclear whether study engagement is an antecedent or consequence of critical thinking.

Currently, college students’ study engagement as an important evaluation criterion of higher education quality 18 and critical thinking as an important goal of higher education 2 have attracted widespread attention in higher education institutions worldwide. But unfortunately, current research on study engagement and critical thinking has focused on more university students in general higher education and less on students in higher vocational education. In China, students in higher vocational education account for more than half of all students in higher education. The same is true in the United States, where students in higher vocational education make up the majority of community college enrollment. 19 In the past, vocational education focused on specific trades and was considered to be a simple form of manual labor. 20 People often associate vocational education with the activities of lower social classes, creating a form of discrimination against vocational education. 21 As the labor market becomes more specialized, the process of economic globalization in the 21st century requires more skilled professionals to acquire more challenging academic and technical skills, which requires students in higher vocational education to be more engaged in learning and to think more critically. These suggest that more research focus should be placed on students in higher vocational education.

This study aims to fill these gaps through three sets of longitudinal data collected from Chinese higher vocational college students. A latent growth model was used to explore the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking, and to explore the interaction between study engagement and critical thinking from a developmental perspective. Based on this, in order to further determine the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking, we used a cross-lagged model. The findings of these two longitudinal studies provide a theoretical basis for the enhancement of study engagement and critical thinking in the developmental process of higher vocational college students.

The Developmental Relations Between Study Engagement and Critical Thinking Over Time

The concept of critical thinking can be traced back 2500 years to Socrates’ “matrimonial art”, which emphasized the importance of analysis using evidence, questioning, etc. There are many definitions of critical thinking, and one widely cited definition is Norris and Ennis’ formulation that critical thinking is reasoned, reflective thinking, which aims to determine our beliefs and actions. 22 Educators around the world attach great importance to the critical thinking of college graduates. 23 National policymakers and accreditation bodies also recognize the importance of developing critical thinking skills, as reflected in the increased emphasis on critical thinking development as a learning outcome and its inclusion in several educational standards and accreditation criteria around the world. 24 In addition, companies when hiring college graduates generally expect them to have stronger critical thinking skills. In a 2018 survey of corporate employers conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities, 84% of corporate executives and 78% of personnel hiring managers identified critical thinking skills as one of the most important learning outcomes for college graduates. 25 The positive role of education in enhancing and promoting students’ critical thinking development is well recognized. 8 Educators and psychologists view critical thinking as a competency that can be acquired through training and learning, 26 , 27 so institutions of higher education are expected to help college students develop their critical thinking abilities by promoting the learning of college students. 28 , 29 Thus, study engagement, an important variable in measuring the quality of learning of university students, 30 is closely related to the development of critical thinking. 12 , 15–17 , 31 Study engagement refers primarily to the time and effort students invest in activities inside and outside the classroom, which mainly consists of three main areas: behavioral engagement, cognitive engagement and affective engagement. 32 , 33 Behavioral engagement means positive behaviors that are invested in academic and social activities; cognitive engagement refers to students’ investment and effort in strategies, motivations, and expectations related to engaging in deeply self-directed learning; affective engagement reflects joy, enthusiasm, interest, attachment, belonging, and reactions to and relationships with others. 34

College students are still in the adolescent stage of their developmental process, their study engagement and critical thinking are not static, but are subject to some developmental changes. 14 , 27 Previous research has shown that there are certain trajectories in study engagement and critical thinking. First of all, in the trajectories of study engagement, students at different ages in different cultures show different developmental trajectories, but most studies have found that student engagement tends to decline with age in adolescence. For example, a study in a Canadian sample of students by Archambault et al showed that the majority of 14–16-year-old students had declining trajectories of study engagement over time. 35 Data from a study in New Zealand found that students between the ages of 10 and 16 had different trajectories in their study engagement level, but the overall level showed a downward trajectory. 14 In a study with a sample of Chinese undergraduate students, considerable grade differences in learning engagement were found, as evidenced by the fact that freshmen students were significantly more engaged in learning than sophomores and juniors. 36 Besides, others have found that Chinese college students’ learning investment was low in sophomore year. 37 Therefore, we conducted a longitudinal study of Chinese senior students to provide more evidence to accurately describe the developmental trajectory of Chinese higher vocational college students’ study engagement.

As for the developmental trajectories of students’ critical thinking, although the existing research results are not uniform in different cultural backgrounds, in general, it has been observed that students’ critical thinking is on the rise during their college years. In the United States, overall, the critical thinking tendency of college students during their school years increases step by step with grade level. 38–40 However, one study of students at a public research university in the United States also found that students did not add substantial value to their critical thinking skills in the first two years of college, and instead showed a decrease in the value-added effect by the third year, with students showing significant value-added in critical thinking after the fourth to fifth years. 41 In other countries, for example, a study that tracked German medical undergraduates for five years found that students’ scores on critical thinking decreased from year one to year five, although there was no significant difference in their overall scores. 42 In China, it has been found that, on average, undergraduate students’ critical thinking skills improve during higher education. 43 However, by grade level, it is characterized by a high starting point of critical thinking performance among Chinese undergraduate students, 44 a low point during the sophomore year, 45 and growth starts to resume in the junior and senior years.

In summary, previous research has described the developmental trajectory of study engagement or critical thinking skills separately, and there are also studies that support the existence of a significant positive relationship between study engagement and critical thinking from a static perspective. 12 , 15–17 However, the research to date has not dealt with the relationship between the two variables over time, lacking a dynamic temporal developmental perspective to investigate the relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically investigate the effect of the initial level of the independent variable on the initial level and developmental rate of the dependent variable using a longitudinal tracking approach, as well as the role of the developmental trajectories of the independent variable on the dependent variable. Therefore, this study used a latent variable growth model to explore the dynamic developmental patterns of study engagement and critical thinking as well as the mechanisms of influence.

The Causal Relations Between Study Engagement and Critical Thinking

Although existing research has found a correlation between study engagement and critical thinking, the causal relationship between the two is unclear. The first view suggests that study engagement positively predicts critical thinking. 12 The study engagement theory proposed by Astin has suggested that the quality and quantity of students’ engagement in a variety of academic and social activities in the institutional setting during the learning process are proportional to the outcome of personal development. 46 As a higher-order cognitive ability, critical thinking skills are the result of learning and training, as a mental habit and psychological strength. 47 Students’ critical thinking development is based on learning cognitive processes, 48 , 49 and the level of engagement in learning affects critical thinking as a learning outcome. Studies have also found a statistically significant relationship between the development of critical thinking and students’ engagement in learning, research, and extracurricular activities, with higher levels of engagement corresponding to greater critical thinking skills. 12 The second view suggests that critical thinking positively predicts study engagement. 15 , 16 According to the drive theory of behavior, drives motivate or drive individual behavior to satisfy needs and eliminate tension. Individuals with high levels of critical thinking tendencies also have high levels of curiosity and the desire to learn, and the cognitive drive created by both positively influences college students’ study engagement levels. It has been found that critical thinking is a key antecedent variable influencing students’ learning process. 16 Critical thinking disposition not only directly and significantly predicts study engagement, but also influences study engagement through mastery approach goal orientation and academic self-efficacy forming a chain of mediators. 15 The third view suggests that study engagement and critical thinking predict each other. 17 , 31 In the presage-process-product 3P model of learning proposed by Biggs, the interaction between the presage, process and outcome variables has formed a dynamic system. 50 , 51 Study engagement as learning processes has formed the learning outcomes of critical thinking. 47 The two may interact dynamically. Study engagement influences learning outcomes, which in turn influence learning perceptions and study engagement. 11 , 52 As mentioned earlier, cognitive deep processing is a cognitive level of study engagement. 34 Findings have also shown that critical thinking interacts with students’ mastery achievement goals, self-efficacy and cognitive deep processing. 17 , 31 Meanwhile, study engagement and critical thinking influence each other.

Previous studies have been conducted mainly based on cross-sectional data, and it is difficult to effectively determine the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. Therefore, in order to further explore the relationship between study engagement and critical thinking, this study used a cross-lagged model to examine the causal relationship between them.

The Present Study

There is a lack of current research on the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking and the possible dynamic influence relationship between them, and a lack of longitudinal data used to demonstrate the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. Therefore, this study focuses on two core research questions: (a) What are the developmental trajectories of learning engagement and critical thinking over time? How do the two influence each other? (b) What is the causal direction of the relationship between study engagement and critical thinking over time? Based on these two research questions, this study first explained the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking of Chinese higher vocational college students and the dynamic mechanisms of their mutual influence using a latent variable growth model. Then, a cross-lagged approach was adopted to reveal the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. This study can help to theoretically explain the changes and effects of study engagement and critical thinking of Chinese higher vocational college students over time and to identify the causal relationships between them. In addition, this study offers some important insights into the way of enhancing higher vocational college students’ study engagement and critical thinking from a practical perspective.

Participants and Procedure

A simple random sampling method was utilised to select 739 first-year students (mean age = 18.21 years, SD = 1.19 years) from a higher vocational institution in Shandong Province, China as valid subjects, including 477 female students (64.55%) and 262 male students (35.45%). All participants completed the questionnaire after the enrollment of the first year (Time1), after the first semester of the first year (Time2), and after the second semester of the first year (Time3). In the second data collection, 689 valid questionnaires were returned and collated (attrition rate = 6.766%, due to some students dropping out, transferring and incorrectly filling out information that could not be identified). A t -test of the first data from the second attrition and retention subjects revealed no significant difference between attrition and tracking subjects in terms of study engagement and critical thinking (t = −1.773, p > 0.05; t = −1.211, p > 0.05). In the third data collection, 654 valid questionnaires were returned and collated (attrition rate = 5.352%, for the same reasons mentioned above). A t -test of the first data for the third attrition and retention subjects revealed no significant differences between attrition and tracking subjects in study engagement and critical thinking (t = −1.677, p > 0.05; t = −0.821, p > 0.05). This indicates that the subject attrition in this study was unstructured and the effect of attrition data on the study results was very minimal. The final sample with all three completed questionnaires was the final valid sample, with a sample size of 654, an average age of 18.11 ± 1.18 years, 35.321% male and 64.679% female, 61.162 are of rural or township origin, 16.208% for counties and 22.630% from urban areas, 41.131 were class leaders or student union leaders.

This study followed the principles of the Research Ethics Committee and was approved by the principal of the participating school. Participants were informed of the purpose of the study, the nature of voluntary participation, and how to withdraw from the survey. Informed consent was obtained for all participants prior to their participation in the study. After each survey, all participants received a small gift as compensation.

Self-report assessments were used to collect the data. All items for study engagement and critical thinking were measured on a 7-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = absolutely disagree to 7 = absolutely agree. All the negatively worded questions were reverse coded. Participants also reported their demographic information at the three waves of data collection.

Study Engagement Measures

The Study Engagement Scale for College Students developed by Wang was used to measure the study engagement of higher vocational college students. 53 The scale was divided into five dimensions: active learning, teacher-student interaction, peer interaction, deep cognitive strategies, and enthusiasm for learning, with 22 questions Appendix . For instance, “I will review what the teacher has taught in class in time”, “I am willing to work with my classmates to complete the homework assigned by the teacher” and “I would like to raise questions about what I have learned” et al. All the questions in this scale were positive. The sum of all the scores was calculated. The higher the score, the higher the degree of learning engagement of the students. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for questionnaires were 0.847 at Time 1, 0.889 at Time 2 and 0.901 at Time 3, which conformed to the critical value that Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of scale measurement should be above 0.55 in social science research put forward by Ziegel et al. 54

Critical Thinking Measures

The Critical Thinking Ability Scale developed by Peng et al was applied to measure the critical thinking abilities of higher education students. 55 The scale was divided into 7 dimensions, including truth-seeking, open-mindedness, analytical ability, systematization ability, self-confidence in critical thinking, intellectual curiosity and cognitive maturity, with a total of 70 questions Appendix . For example, “When faced with a controversial topic, it is extremely difficult for me to choose between different opinions”, “It is important for me to know what others think about things”, “I get anxious when others only use shallow arguments to defend good ideas” and “I always analyze the point of the question before I answer it.” Some of the questions were reverse questions, and the scores were calculated by reversing the scores of these questions and then summing them with other positive questions. The higher the final score obtained, the better the student’s critical thinking skills. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for questionnaires were 0.971 at Time1, 0.965 at Time2 and 0.962 at Time3.

Data Analysis

First, this study mainly employed SPSS 26.0 and Mplus 8.3 for data processing. The descriptive statistics of the variables and their correlation coefficients were tested to examine the stability of study engagement and critical thinking among higher vocational college students and the correlation between them at different time points.

Second, to explore the relations among the initial level of study engagement, developmental trajectories of study engagement, the initial level of critical thinking, and the developmental trajectories of critical thinking, we constructed a latent growth model with parallel processes that examined relations among the intercepts of study engagement and critical thinking as well as the slope of study engagement and critical thinking. 56 The advantage of latent growth model is that it provides richer information by allowing the use of multi-wave data and takes into account systematic individual differences in change. 57 Furthermore, the relations between different domains (eg, study engagement and critical thinking) can be computed using the latent growth model. Thus, using latent growth model analysis enabled accurate determination of the trajectory for each individual and examination of the relations between study engagement and critical thinking over the time. According to Muthén and Muthén, the latent growth model with parallel processes follows two steps: (a) estimate a growth model for each process separately, (b) conduct joint analysis of both processes. 56 The proposed models for the research procedures are presented in Figures 1–3 . In these models, the paths from intercept factors to observed variables were constrained to 1, which means that the intercept values remained constant across three measurement times for each individual. 57 Additionally, the paths from slope factors to the observed variables were constrained to 0, 1, and 2, indicating that the second factor can be interpreted as a slope. 57

LGM with unconditional variables of study engagement or critical thinking.

LGM of study engagement and critical thinking.

LGM of critical thinking and study engagement.

Third, we constructed a cross-lagged model of study engagement and critical thinking to further examine the causal relationship between the two. For the cross-lagged model, we not only tested whether the hypothesis models can act as a good fit for our data but also evaluated nested models (M1–M3). As shown in Figure 4 , Model 1 supposed significant auto-regressive relationships between study engagement and critical thinking as well as reciprocal relationships (the baseline model). However, Models 2 and 3 assumed a single-lagged relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. Model 2 supposed that critical thinking at Time 1 and Time2 influences study engagement across time (freely estimated), and the path coefficient from study engagement to critical thinking was fixed to zero. Model 3 assumed that study engagement at Time 1 and Time 2 influences critical thinking across time (freely estimated); the path coefficient from critical thinking to study engagement was fixed to zero. Model 4 was a cross-lagged model containing all paths of models 1, 2 and 3. Model 4 was compared with Models 1, 2 and 3 to determine the model that best fits the data.

Nested models of the relationship between study engagement and critical thinking.

We used Mplus to conduct the analyses of model fit. All parameters were estimated using the full information maximum likelihood method. In addition, according to Hu and Bentler (1999), the fit indices and acceptable thresholds for model evaluation are χ 2 , df, CFI > 0.900, TLI > 0.900, RMSEA < 0.080, and SRMR < 0.08, respectively, but χ2 has not been used to evaluate the fit of model because it was too sensitive to sample size. 58

Common Method Deviation

The data used in this study was collected using the students’ self-report method, which might have some common method bias issues. Based on the suggestion of Podsakoff et al, the Harman one-way test was used to test for common method bias for each of the three measurements. 59 The results showed that the amount of variance explained by the first factor was 30.41%, 31.45%, and 25.06% respectively in the order of the three tests, all of which were less than the critical criterion of 40%, which indicated that there was no significant common method bias in the data of this study.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlation Analysis

The means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficient matrices of study engagement and critical thinking of higher vocational college students for the three measurements were shown in Table 1 . The results found that study engagement and critical thinking were significantly and positively correlated from T1 to T3 (rs = 0.202–0.439, ps < 0.01); study engagement was pairwise correlation at each time point (rs = 0.298–0.481, ps < 0.01), and critical thinking was also pairwise correlation (rs = 0.306–0.452, ps < 0.01). This suggested that the simultaneous correlations and stability of study engagement and critical thinking among higher vocational students were generally consistent and suitable for latent growth model and cross-lagged model analysis.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among Main Measures

Note : ** p<0.01.

Developmental Trajectories of Study Engagement and Critical Thinking

Unconditional latent growth model for study engagement.

A linear unconditional latent growth model as shown in Figure 1 was constructed for higher vocational college students’ study engagement to examine the trajectories of study engagement during their first year of college. The fit indices of study engagement ( χ 2 /df = 2.420, CFI = 0.995, TLI = 0.985, RMSEA = 0.047, SRMR = 0.014) showed that the unconditional model fitted the data well. In the linear unconditional latent variable growth model for study engagement, the intercept of the model, ie, the initial level of study engagement was 4.540 (SE = 0.037, p < 0.001), which was significantly greater than 0. The slope of the model, ie, the trajectories of study engagement decreased linearly over the three measurement periods(Slope = −0.011, SE = 0.021, p < 0.001).

In addition, the variance estimates for the intercept factor (σ 2 = 0.522, SE = 0.064, p < 0.001) and the slope factor (σ 2 = 0.089, SE = 0.028, p < 0.001) were both significant at the 0.001 level, indicating that there were significant inter-individual differences in the initial level and the rate of decline in study engagement over time. Finally, there was a significant correlation between the intercept growth factor and the slope growth factor (r = −0.642, p < 0.001), making clear that the higher the initial level of study engagement, the faster the level of study engagement declined over the three measurement periods (see Table 2 ).

Coefficient and Fit Indices of Unconditional Latent Growth Model of SE and CT

Note : *p<0.05;***p<0.001.

Abbreviations : CT, critical thinking; SE, study engagement; T1, T2, T3, Time 1, Time 2, Time 3.

Unconditional Latent Growth Model for Critical Thinking

To examine the trajectory of changes in the development of critical thinking among higher vocational college students during their first year of college, this study similarly constructed a linear unconditional latent growth model as shown in Figure 1 . The fit indices for critical thinking ( χ 2 /df = 3.024, CFI = 0.993, TLI = 0.978, RMSEA = 0.056, SRMR = 0.014) showed that the unconditional model fitted the data well. In the linear unconditional latent growth model for critical thinking, the intercept of the model, ie, the initial level of critical thinking, was 4.279 (SE = 0.015, p < 0.001), which was significantly greater than 0. The slope of the model, ie, the trajectories of critical thinking, decreased linearly over the 3 measurements (Slope = −0.056, SE = 0.009, p < 0.001). In addition, the variance estimates for the intercept factor (σ 2 = 0.100, SE= 0.011, p<0.001) and the slope factor (σ 2 = 0.016, SE = 0.005, p < 0.05) were significant at the 0.05 level, indicating significant inter-individual differences in the initial level of critical thinking and the rate of decline in critical thinking over time. Finally, there was a significant correlation between the intercept growth factor and the slope growth factor (r = −0.734, p < 0.001), showing that the higher the initial level of critical thinking, the faster the students’ level of critical thinking decreased during the three measurements (see Table 2 ).

Latent Growth Model with Parallel Processes of Study Engagement and Critical Thinking

To examine the influence processes between study engagement and critical thinking among higher vocational college students, this study constructed a latent growth model with parallel processes to investigate the potential growth of study engagement and critical thinking simultaneously. First, we used the intercept and slope in the study engagement model to predict a linear decline in critical thinking. The model fitted well with χ 2 (7) = 3.594, CFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.952, RMSEA = 0.063, SRMR = 0.023, which was suitable for the next step of analysis. In the latent growth model with parallel processes of study engagement and critical thinking, the regression results were shown in Figure 2 . The slope of study engagement positively predicted the slope of critical thinking, β = 0.668, SE = 0.070, p < 0.001, showing that the faster the level of study engagement declined over time, the faster the level of critical thinking of the students declined. Moreover, the intercept of study engagement positively predicted the intercept of critical thinking, β = 0.777, SE = 0.209, p < 0.001, suggesting that the higher the initial level of study engagement of the students, the higher their initial level of critical thinking. In addition, the correlation coefficient between the intercept growth factor of study engagement and the slope growth factor was −0.626 (p< 0.001), showing that there was a negative correlation between the initial level of study engagement and the rate of development, and that the higher the initial level of study engagement, the faster it declined. The correlation coefficient between the intercept growth factor and the slope growth factor for critical thinking was −0.941 (p < 0.001), making clear that there was a negative correlation between the initial level of critical thinking and the rate of development, and that the higher the initial level of critical thinking, the faster it decreased.

Then, to further test the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking and whether there is an interaction between the two, this study adjusted the order of the independent and dependent variables to develop a latent growth model with the parallel processes of critical thinking and study engagement, using the slope and intercept of critical thinking to predict a linear decline in study engagement. The model fitted well with χ 2 (7) = 3.594, CFI = 0.978, TLI = 0.952, RMSEA = 0.063, SRMR = 0.023, which was suitable for the next step of analysis. In the latent growth model with parallel processes of critical thinking and study engagement, the regression results were shown in Figure 3 . The slope of critical thinking positively predicted the slope of study engagement, β = 0.660, SE = 0.098, p < 0.001, suggesting that the faster the level of critical thinking decreased over time, the faster the level of students’ study engagement decreased. Meanwhile, the intercept of critical thinking positively predicted the intercept of study engagement, β = 0.719, SE = 0.291, p < 0.001, indicating that the higher the initial level of critical thinking of students, the higher their initial level of study engagement. In addition, the correlation coefficient between the intercept growth factor of study engagement and the slope growth factor was −0.910 (p < 0.001), showing that there was a negative correlation between the initial level of study engagement and the rate of development, and that the higher the initial level of study engagement, the faster it declined.The correlation coefficient between the intercept growth factor and the slope growth factor for critical thinking was −0.721 (p < 0.001), making clear that there was a negative correlation between the initial level of critical thinking and the rate of development, and that the higher the initial level of critical thinking, the faster it decreased.

Cross-Lagged Model Analysis

After the initial finding of a bidirectional causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking in the latent growth model with parallel processes of study engagement and critical thinking, in order to further test to prove the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking, this study conducted a cross-lagged analysis of study engagement and critical thinking measured in 3 waves, as suggested by Martens and Haase. 60 Before conducting the cross-lagged analysis of the relationship between the variables, as shown in Figure 4 , the fit indices of the four models were first examined for comparison. Table 3 showed the fit indices of the four models of the current study and the results of the cardinal differences between each competing model (M1, M2 and M3) and the full model (M4). From the table, the fit indices of M4 were all better than M1, M2 and M3, and the chi-square differences between M4 and M1 (Δ χ 2 = 66.285, Δdf = 4, p < 0.001), M4 and M2 (Δ χ 2 = 22.459, Δdf = 2, p < 0.001), and M4 and M3 (Δ χ 2 = 37.291, Δdf = 2, p < 0.001) were all significant. The above results suggested that M4 was the best model.

The Goodness-of-Fit Statistics for the Nested Models

Our study found that Chinese higher vocational college students’ study engagement declined continuously during their first year of university, which was consistent with the research conducted by Zhang & Wang who found a decline in Chinese college students’ study engagement from freshman year and a low lying phenomenon at the sophomore stage. 37 This may be due to the fact that in China, where the national unified college entrance examination exerts too much pressure on high school students, the study engagement of students who have just entered the college has continued the high engagement status obtained during their high school years. However, university studies are less stressful than high school studies and the environment is more relaxed. Moreover, as students become familiar with the university after enrollment, their life circle will be gradually extended, and their energy will be naturally distributed to other activities other than studies. This can lead to a constant distraction of students’ energy from their studies and a decrease in their commitment.The current results also indicate that the initial level of study engagement and the rate of decline are negatively correlated, suggesting that students with higher initial levels of study engagement had a faster rate of decline during their first year of college; conversely, students with lower initial levels of study engagement had a slower rate of decline during their first year of college. This may be a stress-release effect: students with high levels of study engagement under pressure in high school may be more likely to relax and devote their energy to other areas when they enter the relaxed environment of university, resulting in a greater rate of decline in study engagement.

Our study discovered that Chinese higher vocational college students’ critical thinking declined continuously during their first year of college. This was consistent with previous research findings with a sample of Chinese college students, who started at a high level of critical thinking performance, 52 but were on a downward trajectory after entering college and were at a low point during their sophomore year. 45 The current results also showed that the initial level of critical thinking and the rate of decline are negatively correlated, suggesting that students with higher initial levels of critical thinking had a faster rate of decline in their level of study engagement during their first year of college; conversely, students with lower initial levels of critical thinking had a slower rate of decline in their level of study engagement during their first year of college. The reason for this may be that most of the teaching objectives adopted in higher vocational institutions are aimed at developing proficiency in vocational skills instead of fostering or encouraging students’ critical thinking. In addition, during the first year of college, many courses are basic in nature and the content of which is mainly about indoctrination and may not stimulate students’ curiosity or analytical thinking. Courses that stimulate analytical thinking and critical analysis are more often set to occur in the second or third year.

Our results suggested that the initial level of study engagement positively predicted the initial level of critical thinking, and the initial level of critical thinking in turn positively predicted the initial level of study engagement. That is, individuals with higher levels of study engagement have higher levels of critical thinking, and individuals with higher levels of critical thinking have higher levels of study engagement. This may be related to the nature of learning and the mechanism of action of critical thinking. Modern cognitive psychology tells us that learning and training is a constructive process, 61 not a receptive process, and that understanding comes from the interaction of experience and environment. Moreover, learners build new understanding and reflection on the basis of prior knowledge, forming critical thinking, which means that learning is mainly constructed and understood by the learner, and that the input of the individual learner plays an important role in influencing the formation of critical thinking. Additionally, critical thinking dispositions as stable ways of thinking about learning determine the level or hierarchy of independent thinking, reasoning, and decision making, which enable students to assess and analyze learning materials in the classroom with comprehension and analytical thinking and promote students’ engagement in study. 62 , 63

Furthermore, our study showed that the slope of study engagement positively predicted the slope of critical thinking, and the slope of critical thinking positively predicted the slope of study engagement. That is, the faster the rate of decline in study engagement, the faster the rate of decline in critical thinking, and similarly, the faster the rate of decline in critical thinking, the faster the rate of decline in study engagement. This was consistent with previous research findings: there is a significant bidirectional effect between critical thinking and the deep learning approach, 31 which is a cognitive level of study engagement. 34 In other words, there is a significant bidirectional effect between critical thinking and study engagement. The reason for this may be related to self-efficacy, which is an influencing factor of the deep learning approach. 64 , 65 These studies suggested that critical thinking can act as a self-regulator and motivate individuals to perform, ie, critical thinking skills can help to enhance students’ self-efficacy and contribute to an increasing preference for deep learning over time. As the level of deep learning increases rapidly, it becomes easier to develop critical thinking as a learning outcome. Thus, there is a reciprocal positive effect of the rate of change in study engagement and the rate of change in critical thinking.

Finally, the current study further confirmed the causal relationship between study engagement and critical thinking through cross-lagged regression analysis. The results indicated that study engagement positively predicted critical thinking, and critical thinking positively predicted study engagement, and there was a reciprocal relationship between the two. The present results do not imply a rejection of the first and second previous views, but rather an integration of these two views and support the third view that good study engagement fosters critical thinking and that students with good critical thinking will in turn increase study engagement. Conversely, lower study engagement is not conducive to the formation of critical thinking, which will further reduce study engagement and form a vicious circle. This provides a clear direction for the learning and development of higher vocational college students. Cultivating either aspect of study engagement and critical thinking can help to break the vicious circle relationship between study engagement and critical thinking. For example, higher vocational education should strive to create positive learning environments to improve students’ learning experiences and increase their study engagement; invest resources in activities that significantly improve learning and increase support for all aspects of student learning (eg social activities, foreign language, competition, lectures, social practice support). The curriculum should focus on motivating students to devote time and energy to learning-related activities and to improve their critical thinking by increasing their study engagement. Teachers should also pay more attention to the quality of classroom instruction and strive to improve the organizational design of instruction, such as explaining instructional objectives and requirements more clearly, encouraging discussion, communication, and reflection, which can foster students’ critical thinking and also enhance students’ study engagement.

Limitations and Future Directions

Though this study has provided important findings, there are some limitations. First, the sample in this study was drawn from only one Chinese higher vocational institution. Although the sample size was large, the sample might be underrepresented. Future studies should enrich the heterogeneity of the sample and expand the scope of application of the findings. Second, the longitudinal follow-up time of the sample in this study was insufficient. Most of the higher vocational institutions in China have 3 years of study, but this study only tracked 1 year of data, and the results can only present 1 year of development. In the future, we should continue to track the data to completely study the developmental trajectories and interplay between study engagement and critical thinking throughout the entire attendance cycle of Chinese higher vocational college students. Third, the data collected in this study was heavily dependent on student self-reported data, which was only an indirect indicators of college student learning. Therefore, appropriate caution should be exercised in interpreting these results. Additional data sources, such as student interviews, faculty reports, paper-and-pencil assessments, and observations, should be added to future studies to supplement the self-reported data. Finally, further research is required to explore other variables that influence study engagement and critical thinking trajectories (eg nature of activities, tasks or requirements in courses, etc.) in order to provide a clearer perspective on the study of learning engagement and critical thinking.

Conclusions

This study used a latent growth model with cross-lagged regression analysis to explore the developmental trajectories of study engagement and critical thinking among Chinese higher education students, as well as the longitudinal interactions between study engagement and critical thinking. Our findings indicate that (a) students’ study engagement and critical thinking declined during their first year of higher education in China. (b) The intercept and slope of study engagement can positively affect the intercept and slope of critical thinking respectively, and the intercept and slope of critical thinking in turn can positively affect the intercept and slope of study engagement respectively. (c) The cross-lagged regression analysis further verified that study engagement and critical thinking can positively influence each other. The results can help researchers and educators to develop a developmental perspective on study engagement and critical thinking in higher vocational students. Developing either aspect of study engagement and critical thinking can contribute to the joint improvement of both levels. Higher vocational college should try hard to create a positive learning environment to improve students’ learning experience and increase their study engagement; invest resources in activities that significantly improve learning and increase support for all aspects of student learning; and focus curriculum on motivating students to invest time and energy in learning-related activities. Teachers should also pay more attention to the quality of classroom teaching, strive to improve the organizational design of teaching, and encourage discussion, communication and reflection, which can develop students’ critical thinking.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the school administrators, teachers and students who actively cooperated with the researchers to collect data.

Funding Statement

This study received funding from the Youth Project on Education supported by the National Social Science Fund of China “Research on the motivation and guarantee mechanism of enterprises’ participation in school running under the mixed ownership reform of higher vocational colleges” (CIA220278).

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Qingdao harbor vocational and technical college and was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

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• Aysha Al Hashmi 1 , 2 &
• Zeinab Al Azri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3376-9380 1  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  441 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Case analysis is a dynamic and interactive teaching and learning strategy that improves critical thinking and problem-solving skills. However, there is limited evidence about its efficacy as an assessment strategy in nursing education.

This study aimed to explore nursing students’ perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method for clinical competencies in nursing education.

This study used a mixed methods design. Students filled out a 13-item study-advised questionnaire, and qualitative data from the four focus groups was collected. The setting of the study was the College of Nursing at Sultan Qaboos University, Oman. Descriptive and independent t-test analysis was used for the quantitative data, and the framework analysis method was used for the qualitative data.

The descriptive analysis of 67 participants showed that the mean value of the perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method was 3.20 (SD = 0.53), demonstrating an 80% agreement rate. Further analysis indicated that 78.5% of the students concurred with the acceptability of case analysis as an assessment method (mean = 3.14, SD = 0.58), and 80.3% assented its association with clinical competencies as reflected by knowledge and cognitive skills (m = 3.21, SD = 0.60). No significant difference in the perceived efficacy between students with lower and higher GPAs (t [61] = 0.05, p  > 0.05) was identified Three qualitative findings were discerned: case analysis is a preferred assessment method for students when compared to MCQs, case analysis assesses students’ knowledge, and case analysis assesses students’ cognitive skills.

Conclusions

This study adds a potential for the case analysis to be acceptable and relevant to the clinical competencies when used as an assessment method. Future research is needed to validate the effectiveness of case analysis exams in other nursing clinical courses and examine their effects on academic and clinical performance.

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Introduction

Nurses play a critical role in preserving human health by upholding core competencies [ 1 ]. Clinical competence in nursing involves a constant process of acquiring knowledge, values, attitudes, and abilities to deliver safe and high-quality care [ 2 , 3 ]. Nurses possessing such competencies can analyze and judge complicated problems, including those involving crucial patient care, ethical decision-making, and nurse-patient disputes, meeting the constantly altering health needs [ 4 , 5 ]. To optimize the readiness of the new graduates for the challenging clinical work environment needs, nurse leaders call for integrating clinical competencies into the nursing curriculum [ 6 , 7 ] In 2021, the American Association of Colleges of Nursing (AACN) released updated core competencies for professional nursing education [ 8 ]. These competencies were classified into ten fundamental essentials, including knowledge of nursing practice and person-centered care (e.g. integrate assessment skills in practice, diagnose actual or potential health problems and needs, develop a plan of care), representing clinical core competencies.

Nursing programs emphasize clinical competencies through innovative and effective teaching strategies, including case-based teaching (CBT) [ 9 ]. CBT is a dynamic teaching method that enhances the focus on learning goals and increases the chances of the instructor and students actively participating in teaching and learning [ 10 , 11 ]. Additionally, it improves the students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills and enriches their capacity for independent study, cooperation capacity, and communication skills [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. It also broadens students’ perspectives and helps develop greater creativity in fusing theory and practice [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. As the learning environment significantly impacts the students’ satisfaction, case analysis fosters a supportive learning atmosphere and encourages active participation in learning, ultimately improving their satisfaction [ 21 , 22 ].

In addition to proper teaching strategies for clinical competencies, programs are anticipated to evaluate the students’ attainment of such competencies through effective evaluation strategies [ 23 ]. However, deploying objective assessment methods for the competencies remains challenging for most educators [ 24 ]. The standard assessment methods used in clinical nursing courses, for instance, include clinical evaluations (direct observation), skills checklists, Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE), and multiple-choice questions (MCQs) written exams [ 25 ]. MCQs tend to test the recall of factual information rather than the application of knowledge and cognitive skills, potentially leading to assessment inaccuracies [ 26 ].

Given the aforementioned outcomes of CBT, the deployment of case analysis as a clinical written exam is more closely aligned with the course’s expected competencies. A mixed methods study was conducted among forty nursing students at the University of Southern Taiwan study concluded that the unfolding case studies create a safe setting where nursing students can learn and apply their knowledge to safe patient care [ 6 ]. In a case analysis, the patient’s sickness emerges in stages including the signs and symptoms of the disease, urgent care to stabilize the patient, and bedside care to enhance recovery. Thus, unfolding the case with several scenarios helps educators track students’ attained competencies [ 27 ]. However, case analysis as an assessment method is sparsely researched [ 28 ]. A literature review over the past five years yielded no studies investigating case analysis as an assessment method, necessitating new evidence. There remains uncertainty regarding its efficacy as an assessment method, particularly from the students’ perspectives [ 29 ]. In this study, we explored the undergraduate nursing students’ perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method for clinical competencies. Results from this study will elucidate the position of case analysis as an assessment method in nursing education. The potential benefits are improved standardization of clinical assessment and the ability to efficiently evaluate a broad range of competencies.

Research design

Mixed-method research with a convergent parallel design was adopted in the study. This approach intends to converge two data types (quantitative and qualitative) at the interpretation stage to ensure an inclusive research problem analysis [ 30 ]. The quantitative aspect of the study was implemented through a cross-sectional survey. The survey captured the perceived efficacy of using case analysis as an assessment method in clinical nursing education. The qualitative part of the study was carried out through a descriptive qualitative method using focus groups to provide an in-depth understanding of the perceived strengths experienced by the students.

Study setting

Data were collected in the College of Nursing at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU), Oman, during the Spring and Fall semesters of 2023. At the end of each clinical course, the students have a clinical written exam and a clinical practical exam, which constitute their final exam. Most clinical courses use multiple-choice questions (MCQs) in their written exam. However, the child health clinical course team initiated the case analysis as an assessment method in the clinical written exam, replacing the MCQs format.

Participants

For this study, the investigators invited undergraduate students enrolled in the child health nursing clinical course in the Spring and Fall semesters of 2023. Currently, the only course that uses case analysis is child health. Other courses use MCQs. A total enumeration sampling technique was adopted. All the students enrolled in child health nursing clinical courses in the Spring and Fall 2023 semesters were invited to participate in the study. In the Spring, 36 students registered for the course, while 55 students were enrolled in the Fall. We included students who completed the case analysis as a final clinical written exam on the scheduled exam time. Students who did not show up for the exam during the scheduled time and students not enrolled in the course during the Spring and Fall of 2023 were excluded. Although different cases were used each semester, both had the same structure and level of complexity. Further, both cases were peer-reviewed.

Case analysis format

The format presents open-ended questions related to a clinical case scenario. It comprises three main sections: Knowledge, Emergency Room, and Ward. The questions in the sections varied in difficulty based on Bloom’s cognitive taxonomy levels, as presented in Table  1 . An answer key was generated to ensure consistency among course team members when correcting the exam. Three experts in child health nursing peer-reviewed both the case analysis exam paper and the answer key paper. The students were allocated two hours to complete the exam.

Study instruments

Quantitative stage.

The researchers developed a study questionnaire to meet the study objectives. It included two parts. The first was about the demographic data, including age, gender, type of residence, year in the program, and cumulative grade point average (GPA). The second part comprised a 13-item questionnaire assessing the perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method. The perceived efficacy was represented by the acceptability of case analysis as an assessment method (Items 1–5 and 13) and the association with clinical competencies (Items 6 to 12). Acceptability involved format organization and clarity, time adequacy, alignment with course objectives, appropriateness to students’ level, and recommendation for implementation in other clinical nursing courses. Clinical competencies-related items were relevant to knowledge (motivation to prepare well for the exam, active learning, interest in topics, collaboration while studying) and cognitive skills (critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills) (The questionnaire is attached as a supplementary document).

The questionnaire is answered on a 4-point Likert scale: 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = agree, 4 = strongly agree. Higher scores indicated better perceived efficacy and vice versa. The tool underwent content validity testing with five experts in nursing clinical education, resulting in an item-content validity index ranging from 0.7 to 1. The Cronbach alpha was 0.83 for acceptability and 0.90 for clinical competencies.

Qualitative stage

For the focus group interviews, the investigators created a semi-structured interview guide to obtain an in-depth understanding of the students’ perceived strengths of case analysis as an assessment method. See Table  2 .

Data collection

Data was collected from the students after they gave their written informed consent. Students were invited to fill out the study questionnaire after they completed the case analysis as a clinical written exam.

All students in the child health course were invited to participate in focus group discussions. Students who approached the PI to participate in the focus group discussion were offered to participate in four different time slots. So, the students chose their time preferences. Four focus groups were conducted in private rooms at the College of Nursing. Two trained and bilingual interviewers attended the focus groups, one as a moderator while the other took notes on the group dynamics and non-verbal communication. The discussion duration ranged between 30 and 60 min. After each discussion, the moderator transcribed the audio recording. The transcriptions were rechecked against the audio recording for accuracy. Later, the transcriptions were translated into English by bilingual researchers fluent in Arabic and English for the analysis.

Rigor and trustworthiness

The rigor and trustworthiness of the qualitative method were enhanced using multiple techniques. Firstly, quantitative data, literature reviews, and focus groups were triangulated. Participants validated the summary after each discussion using member checking to ensure the moderator’s understanding was accurate. Third, the principal investigator (PI) reflected on her assumptions, experiences, expectations, and feelings weekly. In addition, the PI maintained a detailed audit trail of study details and progress. The nursing faculty conducted the study with experience in qualitative research and nursing education. This report was prepared following the Standard for Reporting Qualitative Research (SRQR) protocol [ 31 ].

Data analysis

Quantitative data were entered in SPSS version 24 and analyzed using simple descriptive analysis using means, standard deviations, and percentages. After computing the means of each questionnaire item, an average of the means was calculated to identify the perceived efficacy rate. A similar technique was used to calculate the rate of acceptability and clinical competencies. The percentage was calculated based on the mean: gained score/total score* 100. In addition, the investigators carried out an independent t-test to determine the relationship between the perceived efficacy and students’ GPA.

The qualitative data were analyzed using the framework analysis method. In our analysis, we followed the seven interconnected stages of framework analysis: (1) transcription, (2) familiarization with the interview, (3) coding, (4) developing a working analytical framework, (5) applying the analytical framework, (6) charting data into framework matrix and (7) interpreting the data [ 32 ]. Two members of the team separately analyzed the transcriptions. Then, they discussed the coding, and discrepancies were solved with discussion.

Mixed method integration

In our study, the quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed separately, and integration occurred at the interpretation level by merging the data [ 33 ]. As a measure of integration between qualitative and quantitative data, findings were assessed through confirmation, expansion, and discordance. If both data sets confirmed each other’s findings, it was considered confirmation, and if they expanded each other’s insight, it was considered expansion. Discordance was determined if the findings were contradictory.

Ethical considerations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Research and Ethics Committee of the College of Nursing, SQU (CON/NF/2023/18). Informed consent was collected, and no identifiable information was reported. For the focus group interviews, students were reassured that their grades were finalized, and their participation would not affect their grades. Also, the interviewers were instructed to maintain a non-judgmental and non-biased position during the interview. Data were saved in a locked cabinet inside a locked office room. The electronic data were saved in a password-protected computer.

The results section will present findings from the study’s quantitative and qualitative components. The integration of the two data types is described after each qualitative finding.

Quantitative findings

We analyzed the data of 67 participants, representing a 73.6% response rate. The mean age was 21.0 years old (SD 0.73) and 36.4% were male students. See Table  3 for more details.

The descriptive analysis showed that the mean value of the perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method was 3.20 (SD = 0.53), demonstrating an 80% agreement rate. Further analysis indicated that 78.5% of the students concurred the acceptability of case analysis as an assessment method (mean = 3.14, SD = 0.58) and 80.3% (m = 3.21, SD = 0.60) assented the clinical competencies associated with it.

For the items representing acceptability, 81.8% of the students agreed that the case analysis was written clearly, and 80.3% reported that it was well organized. As per the questions, 81% described they were appropriate to their level, and 79.8% agreed upon their alignment with the course objectives. Moreover, the time allocated was adequate for 74.5% of the students, and 73.5% recommend using case analysis as an evaluation strategy for other clinical written examinations.

Regarding the clinical competencies, 77.3% of students agreed that the case analysis motivated them to prepare well for the exam, 81.3% reported that it encouraged them to be active in learning, and 81.0% indicated that it stimulated their interest in the topics discussed in the course. Additionally, 76.5% of the students agreed that the case analysis encouraged them to collaborate with other students when studying for the exam. Among the students, 82.5% reported that the case analysis as an assessment method enhanced their critical thinking skills, 81.0% agreed that it helped them practice decision-making skills, and 81.8% indicated that it improved their problem-solving abilities. See Table  4 .

The independent t-test analysis revealed no significant difference in the perceived efficacy between students with lower and higher GPAs (t [61] = 0.05, p  > 0.05). Further analysis showed that the means of acceptability and clinical competencies were not significantly different between the lower GPA group and higher GPA group, t [62] = 0.72, p  > 0.05 and t [63] = -0.83, p  > 0.05, respectively (Table  5 ).

Qualitative findings

A total of 22 had participated in four focus groups, each group had 5–6 students. The qualitative framework analysis revealed three main findings; case analysis is a preferred assessment method to students when compared to MCQs, case analysis assesses students’ knowledge, and case analysis assesses students’ cognitive skills.

Qualitative Finding 1: case analysis is a preferred assessment method to students when compared to MCQs

Most of the students’ statements about the case analysis as an assessment method were positive. One student stated, “Previously, we have MCQs in clinical exams, but they look as if they are theory exams. This exam makes me deal with cases like a patient, which is good for clinical courses.” . At the same time, many students conveyed optimism about obtaining better grades with this exam format. A student stated, “Our grades, with case analysis format, will be better, … may be because we can write more in open-ended questions, so we can get some marks, in contrast to MCQs where we may get it right or wrong” . On the other hand, a few students suggested adding multiple-choice questions, deleting the emergency department section, and lessening the number of care plans in the ward section to secure better grades.

Although the case analysis was generally acceptable to students, they have repeatedly expressed a need to allocate more time for this type of exam. A student stated, “The limited time with the type of questions was a problem, …” . When further discussion was prompted to understand this challenge, we figured that students are not used to handwriting, which has caused them to be exhausted during the exam. An example is “writing is time-consuming and energy consuming in contrast to MCQs …” . These statements elucidate that the students don’t necessarily mind writing but recommend more practice as one student stated, “More experience of this type of examination is required, more examples during clinical practice are needed.” Some even recommended adopting this format with other clinical course exams by saying “It’s better to start this method from the first year for the new cohort and to apply it in all other courses.”

Mixed Methods Inference 1: Confirmation and Expansion

The abovementioned qualitative impression supports the high acceptability rate in quantitative analysis. In fact, there is a general agreement that the case analysis format surpasses the MCQs when it comes to the proper evaluation strategies for clinical courses. Expressions in the qualitative data revealed more details, such as the limited opportunities to practice handwriting, which negatively impacted the perceived adequacy of exam time.

Qualitative Finding 2: case analysis assesses students’ knowledge

Students conferred that they were reading more about the disease pathophysiology, lab values, and nursing care plans, which they did not usually do with traditional means of examination. Examples of statements include “… before we were not paying attention to the normal lab results but …in this exam, we went back and studied them which was good for our knowledge” and “we cared about the care plan. In previous exams, we were not bothered by these care plans”. Regarding the burden that could be perceived with this type of preparation, the students expressed that this has helped them prepare for the theory course exam; as one student said, “We also focus on theory lectures to prepare for this exam …. this was very helpful to prepare us for the theory final exam as well.” However, others have highlighted the risks of limiting the exam’s content to one case analysis. The argument was that some students may have not studied the case completely or been adequately exposed to the case in the clinical setting. To solve this risk, the students themselves advocated for frequent case group discussions in the clinical setting as stated by one student: “There could be some differences in the cases that we see during our clinical posting, for that I recommend that instructors allocate some time to gather all the students and discuss different cases.” Also, the participants advocated for more paper-based case analysis exercises as it is helpful to prepare them for the exams and enhance their knowledge and skills.

Mixed Methods Inferences 2: Confirmation and Expansion

The qualitative finding supports the quantitative data relevant to items 6, 7, and 8. Students’ expressions revealed more insights, including the acquisition of deeper knowledge, practicing concept mapping, and readiness for other course-related exams. At the same time, students recommended that faculty ensure all students’ exposure to common cases in the clinical setting for fair exam preparation.

Qualitative Finding 3. case analysis assesses students’ cognitive skills

Several statements conveyed how the case analysis format helped the students use their critical thinking and analysis skills. One student stated, “It, the case analysis format, enhanced our critical thinking skills as there is a case with given data and we analyze the case….” . Therefore, the case analysis format as an exam is potentially a valid means to assess the student’s critical thinking skills. Students also conveyed that the case analysis format helped them link theory to practice and provided them with the platform to think like real nurses and be professional. Examples of statements are: “…we connect our knowledge gained from theory with the clinical experience to get the answers…” and “The questions were about managing a case, which is what actual nurses are doing daily.” Another interesting cognitive benefit to case analysis described by the students was holistic thinking. For example, one student said, “Case analysis format helped us to see the case as a whole and not only from one perspective.”

Mixed Methods Inferences 3: Confirmation

The quantitative data indicated mutual agreement among the students that the case analysis enhanced their critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving skills. The students’ statements from the interviews, including critical thinking, linking theory to practice, and holistic thinking, further supported these presumptions.

This research presents the findings from a mixed methods study that explored undergraduate nursing students’ perceived efficacy of using case analysis as an assessment method. The perceived efficacy was reflected through acceptability and association with two core competencies: knowledge and cognitive skills. The study findings showed a high rate of perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method among nursing students. Additionally, three findings were extracted from the qualitative data that further confirmed the perceived efficacy: (1) case analysis is a preferred assessment method to students compared to MCQs, (2) case analysis assesses students’ knowledge, and (3) case analysis assesses students’ cognitive skills. Moreover, the qualitative findings revealed details that expanded the understanding of the perceived efficacy among nursing students.

Previous literature reported students’ preference for case analysis as a teaching method. A randomized controlled study investigated student’s satisfaction levels with case-based teaching, in addition to comparing certain outcomes between a traditional teaching group and a case-based teaching group. They reported that most students favored the use of case-based teaching, whom at the same time had significantly better OSCE scores compared to the other group [ 34 ]. As noted, this favorable teaching method ultimately resulted in better learning outcomes and academic performance. Although it may be challenging since no answer options are provided, students appreciate the use of case analysis format in their exams because it aligns better with the course objectives and expected clinical competencies. The reason behind students’ preference for case analysis is that it allows them to interact with the teaching content and visualize the problem, leading to a better understanding. When case analysis is used as an assessment method, students can connect the case scenario presented in the exam to their clinical training, making it more relevant.

In this study, students recognized the incorporation of nursing knowledge in the case analysis exam. They also acknowledged improved knowledge and learning abilities similar to those observed in case-based teaching. Boney et al. (2015) reported that students perceived increased learning gains and a better ability to identify links between different concepts and other aspects of life through case-based teaching [ 35 ]. Additionally, case analysis as an exam promotes students’ in-depth acquirement of knowledge through the type of preparation it entails. Literature suggested that case-based teaching promotes self-directed learning with high autonomous learning ability [ 34 , 36 ]. Thus, better achievement in the case analysis exam could be linked with a higher level of knowledge, making it a suitable assessment method for knowledge integration in nursing care.

The findings of this study suggest that case analysis can be a useful tool for evaluating students’ cognitive skills, such as critical thinking, decision-making, and problem-solving. A randomized controlled study implied better problem-solving abilities among the students in the case-based learning group compared to those in the traditional teaching methods group [ 12 ]. Moreover, students in our study conveyed that case analysis as an exam was an opportunity for them to think like real nurses. Similar to our findings, a qualitative study on undergraduate nutrition students found that case-based learning helped students develop professional competencies for their future practice, in addition to higher-level cognitive skills [ 37 ]. Therefore, testing students through case analysis allows educators to assess the student’s readiness for entry-level professional competencies, including the thinking process. Also, to evaluate students’ high-level cognitive skills according to Bloom’s taxonomy (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation), which educators often find challenging.

Case analysis as an assessment method for clinical courses is partially integrated in case presentation or OSCE evaluation methods. However, the written format is considered to be more beneficial for both assessment and learning processes. A qualitative study was conducted to examine the impact of paper-based case learning versus video-based case learning on clinical decision-making skills among midwifery students. The study revealed that students paid more attention and were able to focus better on the details when the case was presented in a paper format [ 38 ]. Concurrently, the students in our study recommended more paper-based exercises, which they believed would improve their academic performance.

This study has possible limitations. The sample size was small due to the limited experience of case analysis as a clinical written exam in the program. Future studies with larger sample sizes and diverse nursing courses are needed for better generalizability.

Implications

Little evidence relates to the efficacy of case analysis as an evaluation method, suggesting the novelty of this study. Despite the scarcity of case-based assessment studies, a reader can speculate from this study’s findings that there is a potential efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method in nursing education. Future research is warranted to validate the effectiveness of case-analysis assessment methods and investigate the effects of case-analysis exams on academic and clinical performance.

Overall, our findings are in accordance with the evidence suggesting students’ perceived efficacy of case analysis as a teaching method. This study adds a potential for the case analysis to be acceptable and relevant to the clinical competencies when used as an assessment method. Future research is needed to validate the effectiveness of case analysis exams in other nursing clinical courses and examine their effects on academic and clinical performance.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available fromthe Principal Investigator (BAY) upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank the nursing students at SQU who voluntarily participated in this study.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Sultan Qaboos University, Al Khodh 66, Muscat, 123, Oman

Basma Mohammed Al Yazeedi, Lina Mohamed Wali Shakman, Sheeba Elizabeth John Sunderraj, Harshita Prabhakaran, Judie Arulappan, Erna Judith Roach, Aysha Al Hashmi & Zeinab Al Azri

Oman College of Health Science, Norht Sharqia Branch, Ibra 66, Ibra, 124, Oman

Aysha Al Hashmi

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Contributions

Dr. Basma Mohammed Al Yazeedi contributed to conceptualization, methods, data collection, data analysis, writing the draft, and reviewing the final draft. Ms. Lina Mohamed Wali Shakman contributed to conceptualization, data collection, data analysis, writing the draft, and reviewing the final draft. Ms. Sheeba Elizabeth John Sunderraj contributed to conceptualization, methods, data collection, writing the draft, and reviewing the final draft.Ms. Harshita Prabhakaran contributed to conceptualization, data collection, writing the draft, and reviewing the final draft.Dr. Judie Arulappan contributed to conceptualization and reviewing the final draft.Dr. Erna Roach contributed to conceptualization writing the draft and reviewing the final draft.Ms. Aysha Al Hashmi contributed to the conceptualization and reviewing the final draft. Dr. Zeinab Al Azri contributed to data collection, data analysis, writing the draft, and reviewing the final draft.All auhors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscirpt.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zeinab Al Azri .

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Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was obtained from the Research and Ethics Committee of the College of Nursing, Sultan Qaboos University SQU (CON/NF/2023/18). All data was held and stored following the SQU data policy retention. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all of the participants in the study.

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Not applicable.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

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Supplementary Material 1:

The questionnaire used in this study is attached as a supplementary document.

Supplementary Material 2

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Yazeedi, B.M.A., Shakman, L.M.W., Sunderraj, S.E.J. et al. Perceived efficacy of case analysis as an assessment method for clinical competencies in nursing education: a mixed methods study. BMC Nurs 23 , 441 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02102-9

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Received : 07 April 2024

Accepted : 17 June 2024

Published : 28 June 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02102-9

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Lights, camera, action: Students explore environmental health themes

Video project challenges undergrads to act out classroom concepts

Amelia Wong (left), Jade Davis, Zoe Chen, Alaina Rich and Nisha Saranat review their footage between takes.

While whipping up a chicken salad in the Nosker House kitchen, first-year student Jade Davis and her classmates can’t stop breaking character. They’ve set the scene: an unsuspecting patron takes a risk on a new restaurant just to get food poisoning—in the middle of a big day of studying, no less. 

The group wrote the script and cast the roles, but they’d be the first to admit acting isn’t part of their 10-year plan. As students in  PUBHEHS 3310: Current Issues in Global Environmental Health , they were tasked with creating a short film or skit to highlight one of 18 topics they learned about in the classroom.

“It’s really easy to just put together a presentation and just talk about what the topic means, but that’s not the best learning experience,” said Associate Professor  Paul Rosile who teaches the class. “The creative video takes a lot of critical thinking, and it really makes them think about how they can creatively represent environmental health concepts and topics with their storyline, acting and dialogue.”

As good public health educators and practitioners know well, the field is only effective when its importance is clearly communicated – when complex concepts are distilled into easy-to-digest messages.  

Davis's group chose to focus on food safety because they thought it would be something they could act out with resources at their disposal — access to a residence hall kitchen and a pre-packaged salad from campus dining. The class shed light on public health work that is invisible to most of the people it protects.

“I was introduced to so many topics that could be health hazards that I had never even thought of,” Davis said. “Like the food safety stuff... I didn’t know that much went into keeping food safe and keeping people safe. That alone has opened my eyes.”

Davis recently declared her major in public health with an environmental health specialization while taking PUBHEHS 3310, an online general education course primarily taken by first- and second-year undergraduates. 

With more than 100 enrollees during the fall and spring semesters, Rosile knows not every student will walk away deciding to specialize in environmental health. Regardless of their ultimate academic destination, he wants them to leave with more awareness about how their communities are impacted by threats such as hazardous waste, and air and water pollution, and to be prepared to share that knowledge.

Rosile and  Margaret DiMaria , the college’s structural design coordinator, have been tinkering with the creative assignment over five semesters, figuring out how to best  leverage Ohio State’s virtual learning tools to provide students with a quality groupwork experience. Students use Teams to meet during synchronous sessions, which affords Rosile the opportunity to pop into breakout rooms and meet with each group.

The course is a “shining example of online instruction done thoughtfully,” DiMaria said.

“Paul is very effective helping students connect concepts to their everyday life. It allows students to see how public health affects them personally,” she said. “I see a lot of lightbulbs go off in this course.”

That was junior Stella Wineman’s experience. Last fall her group created a video with parallel storylines focused on two different families — one struggling with food insecurity and another who did not. While one family faced greater health challenges and had a hard time getting to a grocery store and accessing healthy foods, the other experienced less friction in their daily lives.

“We wanted to show the true disparity between two different households,” she said. “You’re able to see privileges that families who do not experience food insecurity have, which if you haven’t experienced food insecurity, can be eye opening.”

Wineman, who is majoring in international affairs and diplomacy and minoring in global public health, said she still notices when she drives through a community and hasn’t seen a grocery store in a while, even months after completing the course.

"It enlightened me about the places I’m going to and the things I’m seeing around me,” she said. “It makes me think about it a little bit differently.”

*****      

About The Ohio State University College of Public Health

The Ohio State University College of Public Health is a leader in educating students, creating new knowledge through research, and improving the livelihoods and well-being of people in Ohio and beyond. The College's divisions include biostatistics, environmental health sciences, epidemiology, health behavior and health promotion, and health services management and policy. It is ranked 29 th  among all colleges and programs of public health in the nation, and first in Ohio, by  U.S. News and World Report. Its specialty programs are also considered among the best in the country. The MHA program is ranked 8 th , the biostatistics specialty is ranked 22 nd , the epidemiology specialty is ranked 25 th and the health policy and management specialty is ranked 17 th .

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