study method for essay

The 7 Best Study Methods for All Types of Students

These are seven effective study methods and techniques for students looking to optimize their learning habits.

• By Sander Tamm
• Jan 10, 2023

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“You must not fool yourself, and you are the easiest person to fool.” Richard Feynman

Choosing the correct study method is a crucial part of the learning process that students too often skip over. Picking the best study method for the situation can help students reach their full potential, while a poorly chosen study technique will kill any real progress, no matter how hard the student tries to study.

If you’re reading this article, you’re likely the exception, but the reality is that most students rely on ineffective study strategies. Researchers have found that between 83.6%  and  84%  of students rely on rereading: a study method that provides  minimal benefits .

There are far superior study methods out there than rereading. Methods that have been developed and researched by the world’s top learning scientists. Yet, surprisingly few students have ever heard of them. That is why utilizing them effectively will give you not only an edge but an entire leg up on the competition.

These are the seven best study methods all students should know about:

Best Study Methods

Spaced repetition.

Spaced repetition , sometimes called spaced practice, interleaved practice, or spaced retrieval, is a study method that involves separating your study sessions into spaced intervals. It’s a simple concept but a game-changer to most students because of how powerful it is.

To demonstrate how spaced repetition works, let’s bring a real-life example. Let’s say you have an exam coming up in 36 days, and your first study session begins today. In this situation, a well-optimized interval might be:

• Session 1: Day 1
• Session 2: Day 7
• Session 3: Day 16
• Session 4: Day 35
• Exam Date: Day 36

In a nutshell, it’s the opposite of cramming and all-nighters. Rather than concentrating all studying into a small time frame, this method requires you to space out your studying by reviewing and recalling information at optimal intervals until the material has been memorized.

In the 21st century, this technique has gathered increasing popularity, and it’s not without reason. Spaced repetition manages to combine all the existing knowledge we have on human memory, and it uses that knowledge to create optimized algorithms for studying. One of the most popular examples of spaced repetition algorithms is Anki , based on another popular algorithm, SuperMemo .

For example, there is no better study method for medical students than Anki-based flashcard decks. There are entire online communities surrounding medical school Anki. You can get a small glimpse of that by heading over to r/medicalschoolanki .

There, you’ll find a breadth of different medical school Anki decks to choose from, such as:

• Pepper deck
• Lightyear deck
• UWorld deck
• Premed95 deck

But, the power of spaced repetition is not at all only applicable to medical students. Anyone trying to become a better and more efficient learner can benefit from spaced repetition. Spaced repetition is used in conjunction with other study methods, and it’s especially powerful when combined with the following study method we’ll discuss: active recall.

Active Recall

Active recall , sometimes called retrieval practice or practice testing, is a study technique involving actively recalling information (rather than just reading or re-reading it) by testing yourself repeatedly. Most students dread the word “test” for good reasons. After all, tests and exams can be very stressful because they are usually the main point of measure for your academic success.

However, active recall teaches us to look at testing from another angle. Not only should we learn for tests, but we should also learn by testing. Through flashcards, self-generated questions, and practice tests, this study method uses self-testing to help your brain memorize, retain, and retrieve information more efficiently.

One study found that students who conducted only one practice test before an exam got  17%  better results right after. Two more studies conducted in  2005  and  2012 , plus a  2017 meta-analysis , yielded similar results, finding that students who used active recall and self-testing outperformed students who did not.

If you’re practicing for an upcoming exam, there’s no better study method than active recall. By using active recall, you’re essentially testing yourself dozens of times over. If you conduct these practice tests over a long period of time through spaced repetition, you’ll be able to ace any exam without cramming.

Keep in mind, though, that while very effective, active recall is also one of the most tiring study techniques on this list. It requires strong mental focus, deep concentration, and intense mental stamina. Active recall is cognitively demanding, so don’t expect to breeze through your learning materials with this method.

Next, I’ll cover my favorite time management strategy for students: the Pomodoro method.

Pomodoro Study Method

The  Pomodoro study method is a time-management technique that uses a timer to break down your studying into 25-minute (or 45-minute) increments, called Pomodoro sessions. Then, after each session, you’ll take a 5-minute (or 15-minute) break, during which you entirely distance yourself from the study topic. And after completing four such sessions, you’ll take a more extended 15-to-30-minute break.

To try the Pomodoro technique without installing any software or buying a timer, I recommend you go to YouTube. YouTube is full of Pomodoro-based “study with me” videos from channels such as TheStrive Studies ,  Ali Abdaal , and  MDprospect . Many of them include music, though, so if you’re distracted by music while studying, you might benefit from a purpose-built Pomodoro application such as TomatoTimer  or  RescueTime .

There are various benefits to using the Pomodoro method: it’s a simple and straightforward technique, it forces you to map out your daily tasks and activities, allows for easy tracking of the amount of time spent on each task, and it provides short bursts of concentrated work together with resting periods.

But, it’s also worth noting that the scientific evidence behind the Pomodoro method is mostly conjectural as there is little scientific research on its effectiveness. And another drawback of the Pomodoro study technique is that it’s not ideal for tasks that require prolonged, uninterrupted focusing. For these kinds of tasks, I recommend that you look into the closely related Flowtime method instead.

Despite that, though, I use the Pomodoro method on a daily basis myself, and it has become an integral and irreplaceable part of my workflow.

Feynman Technique

The  Feynman Technique  is a flexible, easy-to-use, and effective study technique developed by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman. It is based on a simple idea: the best way to learn any topic is by teaching it to a sixth-grade child.

While this concept is not as advanced as the super-optimized spaced repetition algorithms I covered earlier, it’s still a method that continues to be relevant nearly a century after its creation.

The Feynman Technique is a powerful learning tool that requires learners to step out of their comfort zone by breaking down even the most complex topics into easily digestible chunks. Digestible enough for the average sixth-grade child.

This may seem like an easy task at first. After all, how difficult could it be to explain something to a child? In practice, it can be very difficult because you have to simplify and explain everything in an age-appropriate manner. When you start using the method, you’ll quickly realize that unless you have fully mastered the topic, meeting a child at their level of understanding is not easy.

To explain something clearly, you need to define all unfamiliar terms, generate straightforward explanations for complex ideas, understand connections between different topics and sub-topics, and articulate what is learned clearly and concisely. The Feynman Technique forces you to learn more deeply and think critically about what you are learning, and that is also why it’s a compelling learning method.

Leitner System

The  Leitner System is a simple and effective study method that uses a flashcard-based learning strategy to maximize memorization. It was developed by Sebastian Leitner back in 1972, and it was a source of inspiration to many of the newer flashcard-based methods that succeeded it, such as Anki.

To use the method, you’ll first need to create flashcards. On the front of the cards, you’ll write the questions, and on the back, the answers. Then, once you have your flashcards ready, get three “Leitner boxes” big enough to hold all the cards you’ve created. Let’s name them Box 1, 2, and 3.

Now, you’re all set to start studying with your flashcards. In the beginning, you’ll place all cards in Box 1. Take a card from Box 1 and try to retrieve the answer from your memory. If you recall the answer, put it in Box 2. If not, keep it in Box 1. Then, you’ll repeat this until you’ve reviewed all the cards in Box 1 at least once. After that, you’ll start reviewing each box of cards based on time intervals.

Here’s an animation that shows how the Leitner System works:

Besides card placement, another important detail of the system is scheduling. Every box has a set review frequency, with Box 1 being reviewed the most frequently as it contains all the most difficult-to-learn flashcards. Box 3, on the other hand, will contain the cards you’ve already recalled correctly, which is why it does not need to be reviewed as frequently.

If you’ve never heard of the Leitner system, you might be surprised to hear that some of the world’s biggest learning platforms, such as Duolingo, use a variation to teach hundreds of millions of students. It’s particularly effective at language learning due to the ease of creating translation-based flashcards.

While I love the Leitner System for its simplicity, I don’t use it often anymore due to the lengthy setup process, and other flashcard study methods, such as Anki, tend to be more time-efficient. But, if you prefer physical flashcards over virtual ones, you should consider using the Leitner system. It’s a beautiful study technique that has stood the test of time.

PQ4R Study Method

The PQ4R is a study method developed by researchers Thomas and Robinson in 1972 – the same year as the Leitner System was conceived. PQ4R stands for the steps used for learning something new: Preview, Question, Read, Reflect, Recite, and Review. It’s commonly used to improve reading comprehension and is an essential method for students with reading disabilities.

However, the usefulness of PQ4R is not restricted to students with reading disabilities. The same six steps can be taken by any student trying to understand better what they’re reading. Improving reading comprehension is a worthy goal for any student, and if you need to read through a massive textbook for an exam, the PQ4R method offers a practical framework. It will allow you to understand all the passages of the text better and help you retain the information better.

By improving our reading comprehension, we can better synthesize information and interpret text. However, we must be careful not to let this strategy consume too much of our time in study sessions. Many modern learning scientists consider reading a passive and ineffective study strategy, and it’s best to rely on other methods when you can.

While I don’t use this study method as frequently as most other methods on this list, I still consider it an important strategy in my skill set. Whenever I need to extract the most critical details from a large textbook, I bring out the PQ4R to help me get through the information quicker while boosting memorization and retention. The PQ4R is a good study method to have ready, but it’s not something you should view as your primary strategy.

SQ3R Study Method

The SQ3R study method was developed by Francis P. Robinson in  1946  and is the predecessor of the PQ4R method. It’s a time-proven study technique that can be adapted to virtually any subject. The method’s name stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review and it can be used to study anything quicker, better, and in a more structured way than conventional methods.

While groundbreaking for its time, the SQ3R study method has the same drawbacks as the newer PQ4R method. For one, it’s mainly used for improving reading comprehension, and reading is not considered an effective study strategy anymore. Another problem the method faces is that it lacks the “reflection” component that the newer PQ4R study method brings to the table.

In addition, three of the five steps of this method involve a passive approach (surveying, reading, and reviewing) rather than an active one. Modern learning theories suggest active retrieval is far better for information retention than passive reading. Thus, I recommend using this study method only when you don’t have the time to use a more robust method, such as spaced repetition.

SQ3R is best used when you have limited time to study, and your primary source of information comes from a textbook. In such cases, the technique can be very helpful for summarizing the key points written in the source material.

Now, it’s time to start wrapping up this article.

In conclusion, there are many excellent study methods you have to choose from as a student in the 21st century. The best one for you will depend on your learning style, the material you are studying, and how much free time you have. When possible, I recommend you study using a combination of spaced repetition, active recall, and the Pomodoro method. But the other strategies listed here certainly have their uses as well. Above all, try to be flexible and keep an open mind. In doing so, you’ll be able to maximize your learning potential.

Sander Tamm

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25 Scientifically Proven Tips for More Effective Studying

Staying on top of schoolwork can be tough.

Whether you’re in high school, or an adult going back to college, balancing coursework with other responsibilities can be challenging. If you’re teetering on the edge of burnout, here are some study tips that are scientifically proven to help you succeed!

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2024 Ultimate Study Tips Guide

In this guide, we explore scientifically-proven study techniques from scientific journals and some of the world’s best resources like Harvard, Yale, MIT, and Cornell.

In a hurry? Skip ahead to the section that interests you most.

• How to Prepare for Success
• Create Your Perfect Study Space
• Pick a Study Method that Works for You
• Effective Study Skills
• How to Study More Efficiently
• How to Study for Tests
• Memory Improvement Techniques
• Top 10 Study Hacks Backed by Science
• Best Study Apps
• Study Skills Worksheets
• Key Takeaways

This comprehensive guide covers everything from studying for exams to the best study apps. So, let’s get started!

Part 1 – How to Prepare for Success

1. Set a Schedule

“Oh, I’ll get to it soon” isn’t a valid study strategy. Rather, you have to be intentional about planning set study sessions .

On your calendar, mark out chunks of time that you can devote to your studies. You should aim to schedule some study time each day, but other commitments may necessitate that some sessions are longer than others.

Harder classes require more study time. So, too, do classes that are worth several credits. For each credit hour that you’re taking, consider devoting one to three hours to studying each week.

2. Study at Your Own Pace

Do you digest content quickly, or do you need time to let the material sink in? Only you know what pace is best for you.

There’s no right (or wrong) study pace. So, don’t try matching someone else’s speed.

Instead, through trial and error, find what works for you. Just remember that slower studying will require that you devote more time to your schoolwork.

3. Get Some Rest

Exhaustion helps no one perform their best. Your body needs rest ; getting enough sleep is crucial for memory function.

This is one reason that scheduling study time is so important: It reduces the temptation to stay up all night cramming for a big test. Instead, you should aim for seven or more hours of sleep the night before an exam.

Limit pre-studying naps to 15 or 20 minutes at a time. Upon waking, do a few stretches or light exercises to prepare your body and brain for work.

4. Silence Your Cell Phone

Interruptions from your phone are notorious for breaking your concentration. If you pull away to check a notification, you’ll have to refocus your brain before diving back into your studies.

Consider turning off your phone’s sounds or putting your device into do not disturb mode before you start. You can also download apps to temporarily block your access to social media .

If you’re still tempted to check your device, simply power it off until you’re finished studying.

Research shows that stress makes it harder to learn and to retain information.

Stress-busting ideas include:

• Taking deep breaths
• Writing down a list of tasks you need to tackle
• Doing light exercise

Try to clear your head before you begin studying.

Part 2 – Create Your Perfect Study Space

1. Pick a Good Place to Study

There’s a delicate balance when it comes to the best study spot : You need a place that’s comfortable without being so relaxing that you end up falling asleep. For some people, that means working at a desk. Others do better on the couch or at the kitchen table. Your bed, on the other hand, may be too comfy.

Surrounding yourself with peace and quiet helps you focus. If your kids are being loud or there’s construction going on outside your window, you might need to relocate to an upstairs bedroom, a quiet cafe or your local library.

2. Choose Your Music Wisely

Noise-canceling headphones can also help limit distractions.

It’s better to listen to quiet music than loud tunes. Some people do best with instrumental music playing in the background.

Songs with lyrics may pull your attention away from your textbooks. However, some folks can handle listening to songs with words, so you may want to experiment and see what works for you.

Just remember that there’s no pressure to listen to any music. If you do your best work in silence, then feel free to turn your music player off.

3. Turn Off Netflix

If song lyrics are distracting, just imagine what an attention sucker the television can be! Serious studying requires that you turn off the TV.

The same goes for listening to radio deejays. Hearing voices in the background takes your brainpower off of your studies.

4. Use Background Sounds

Turning off the television, talk radio and your favorite pop song doesn’t mean that you have to study in total silence. Soft background sounds are a great alternative.

Some people enjoy listening to nature sounds, such as ocean waves or cracks of thunder. Others prefer the whir of a fan.

5. Snack on Brain Food

A growling stomach can pull your mind from your studies, so feel free to snack as you work. Keep your snacks within arm’s reach, so you don’t have to leave your books to find food.

Fuel your next study session with some of the following items:

• Lean deli meat
• Grapes or apple slices
• Dark chocolate

Go for snacks that will power your brain and keep you alert. Steer clear of items that are high in sugar, fat and processed carbs.

Part 3 – Pick a Study Method That Works for You

Mindlessly reading through your notes or textbooks isn’t an effective method of studying; it doesn’t help you process the information. Instead, you should use a proven study strategy that will help you think through the material and retain the information.

Strategy #1 – SQ3R Method

With the SQ3R approach to reading , you’ll learn to think critically about a text.

There are five steps:

• Survey : Skim through the assigned material. Focus on headings, words in bold print and any diagrams.
• Question : Ask yourself questions related to the topic.
• Read : Read the text carefully. As you go, look for answers to your questions.
• Recite : Tell yourself the answers to your questions. Write notes about them, even.
• Review : Go over the material again by rereading the text and reading your notes aloud.

Strategy #2 – PQ4R Method

PQ4R is another study strategy that can help you digest the information you read.

This approach has six steps:

• Preview : Skim the material. Read the titles, headings and other highlighted text.
• Question : Think through questions that pertain to the material.
• Read : As you work through the material, try to find answers to your questions.
• Reflect : Consider whether you have any unanswered questions or new questions.
• Recite : Speak aloud about the things you just read.
• Review : Look over the material one more time.

Strategy #3 – THIEVES Method

The THIEVES approach can help you prepare to read for information.

There are seven pre-reading steps:

• Title : Read the title.
• Headings : Look through the headings.
• Introduction : Skim the intro.
• Every first sentence in a section : Take a look at how each section begins.
• Visuals and vocabulary : Look at the pictures and the words in bold print.
• End questions : Review the questions at the end of the chapter.
• Summary : Read the overview of the text.

Ask yourself thought-provoking questions as you work through these steps. After completing them, read the text.

Studying Online

Although these three study strategies can be useful in any setting, studying online has its own set of challenges.

Dr. Tony Bates has written a thoughtful and thorough guide to studying online, A Student Guide to Studying Online . Not only does he highlight the importance of paying attention to course design, but he also offers helpful tips on how to choose the best online program and manage your course load.

Part 4 – Effective Study Skills

1. Highlight Key Concepts

Looking for the most important information as you read helps you stay engaged with the material . This can help keep your mind from wandering as you read.

As you find important details, mark them with a highlighter, or underline them. It can also be effective to jot notes along the edges of the text. Write on removable sticky notes if the book doesn’t belong to you.

When you’re preparing for a test, begin your studies by reviewing your highlighted sections and the notes you wrote down.

2. Summarize Important Details

One good way to get information to stick in your brain is to tell it again in your own words. Writing out a summary can be especially effective. You can organize your summaries in paragraph form or in outline form.

Keep in mind that you shouldn’t include every bit of information in a summary. Stick to the key points.

Consider using different colors on your paper. Research shows that information presented in color is more memorable than things written in plain type. You could use colored pens or go over your words with highlighters.

After writing about what you read, reinforce the information yet again by reading aloud what you wrote on your paper.

3. Create Your Own Flashcards

For an easy way to quiz yourself , prepare notecards that feature a keyword on one side and important facts or definitions about that topic on the reverse.

Writing out the cards will help you learn the information. Quizzing yourself on the cards will continue that reinforcement.

The great thing about flashcards is that they’re easily portable. Slip them in your bag, so you can pull them out whenever you have a spare minute. This is a fantastic way to squeeze in extra practice time outside of your regularly scheduled study sessions.

As an alternative to paper flashcards, you can also use a computer program or a smartphone app to make digital flashcards that you can click through again and again.

4. Improve Recall with Association

Sometimes your brain could use an extra hand to help you hold onto the information that you’re studying. Creating imaginary pictures, crafting word puzzles or doing other mental exercises can help make your material easier to remember.

Try improving recall with the following ideas:

• Sing the information to a catchy tune.
• Think of a mnemonic phrase in which the words start with the same letters as the words that you need to remember.
• Draw a picture that helps you make a humorous connection between the new information and the things that you already know.
• Envision what it would be like to experience your topic in person. Imagine the sights, sounds, smells and more.
• Think up rhymes or tongue twisters that can help the information stick in your brain.
• Visualize the details with a web-style mind map that illustrates the relationships between concepts.

5. Absorb Information in Smaller Chunks

Think about how you memorize a phone number: You divide the 10-digit number into three smaller groups. It’s easier to get these three chunks to stick in your mind than it is to remember the whole thing as a single string of information.

You can use this strategy when studying by breaking a list down into smaller parts. Work on memorizing each part as its own group.

6. Make Your Own Study Sheet

Condensing your most important notes onto one page is an excellent way to keep priority information at your fingertips. The more you look over this sheet and read it aloud, the better that you’ll know the material.

Furthermore, the act of typing or writing out the information will help you memorize the details. Using different colors or lettering styles can help you picture the information later.

Just like flashcards, a study sheet is portable. You can pull it out of your bag whenever you have a spare minute.

7. Be the Teacher

To teach information to others, you first have to understand it yourself. Therefore, when you’re trying to learn something new, challenge yourself to consider how you’d teach it to someone else. Wrestling with this concept will help you gain a better understanding of the topic.

In fact, you can even recruit a friend, a family member or a study group member to listen to your mini-lesson. Reciting your presentation aloud to someone else will help the details stick in your mind, and your audience may be able to point out gaps in your knowledge.

8. Know When to Call It a Day

Yes, you really can get too much of a good thing. Although your studies are important, they shouldn’t be the only thing in your life. It’s also important to have a social life, get plenty of exercise, and take care of your non-school responsibilities.

Studies show that too much time with your nose in the books can elevate your stress level , which can have a negative effect on your school performance and your personal relationships.

Too much studying may also keep you from getting enough exercise. This could lower your bone density or increase your percentage of body fat.

Part 5 – How to Study More Efficiently

1. Take Regular Breaks

Study sessions will be more productive if you allow yourself to take planned breaks. Consider a schedule of 50 minutes spent working followed by a 10-minute break.

Your downtime provides a good chance to stand up and stretch your legs. You can also use this as an opportunity to check your phone or respond to emails. When your 10 minutes are up, however, it’s time to get back to work.

At the end of a long study session, try to allow yourself a longer break — half an hour, perhaps — before you move on to other responsibilities.

2. Take Notes in Class

The things that your teacher talks about in class are most likely topics that he or she feels are quite important to your studies. So, it’s a good idea to become a thorough note-taker.

The following tips can help you become an efficient, effective note-taker:

• Stick to the main points.
• Use shorthand when possible.
• If you don’t have time to write all the details, jot down a keyword or a name. After class, you can use your textbook to elaborate on these items.
• For consistency, use the same organizational system each time you take notes.
• Consider writing your notes by hand, which can help you remember the information better. However, typing may help you be faster or more organized.

Recording important points is effective because it forces you to pay attention to what’s being said during a lecture.

3. Exercise First

Would you believe that exercise has the potential to grow your brain ? Scientists have shown this to be true!

In fact, exercise is most effective at generating new brain cells when it’s immediately followed by learning new information.

There are short-term benefits to exercising before studying as well. Physical activity helps wake you up so you feel alert and ready when you sit down with your books.

4. Review and Revise Your Notes at Home

If your notes are incomplete — for example, you wrote down dates with no additional information — take time after class to fill in the missing details. You may also want to swap notes with a classmate so you can catch things that you missed during the lecture.

• Rewrite your notes if you need to clean them up
• Rewriting will help you retain the information
• Add helpful diagrams or pictures
• Read through them again within one day

If you find that there are concepts in your notes that you don’t understand, ask your professor for help. You may be able to set up a meeting or communicate through email.

After rewriting your notes, put them to good use by reading through them again within the next 24 hours. You can use them as a reference when you create study sheets or flashcards.

5. Start with Your Toughest Assignments

Let’s face it: There are some subjects that you like more than others. If you want to do things the smart way, save your least challenging tasks for the end of your studies. Get the hardest things done first.

If you save the toughest tasks for last, you’ll have them hanging over your head for the whole study session. That can cost you unnecessary mental energy.

Furthermore, if you end with your favorite assignments, it will give you a more positive feeling about your academic pursuits. You’ll be more likely to approach your next study session with a good attitude.

6. Focus on Key Vocabulary

To really understand a subject, you have to know the words that relate to it. Vocabulary words are often written in textbooks in bold print. As you scan the text, write these words down in a list.

Look them up in a dictionary or in the glossary at the back of the book. To help you become familiar with the terms, you could make a study sheet with the definitions or make flashcards.

7. Join a Study Group

Studying doesn’t always have to be an individual activity.

Benefits of a study group include:

• Explaining the material to one another
• Being able to ask questions about things you don’t understand
• Quizzing each other or playing review games
• Learning the material more quickly than you might on your own
• Developing soft skills that will be useful in your career, such as teamwork and problem solving
• Having fun as you study

Gather a few classmates to form a study group.

Part 6 – How to Study for Tests

1. Study for Understanding, Not Just for the Test

Cramming the night before a big test usually involves trying to memorize information long enough to be able to regurgitate it the next morning. Although that might help you get a decent grade or your test, it won’t help you really learn the material .

Within a day or two, you’ll have forgotten most of what you studied. You’ll have missed the goal of your classes: mastery of the subject matter.

Instead, commit yourself to long-term learning by studying throughout the semester.

2. Begin Studying at Least One Week in Advance

Of course, you may need to put in extra time before a big test, but you shouldn’t put this off until the night before.

Instead, in the week leading up to the exam, block off a daily time segment for test preparation. Regular studying will help you really learn the material.

3. Spend at Least One Hour per Day Studying

One week out from a big test, study for an hour per night. If you have two big tests coming up, increase your daily study time, and divide it between the two subjects.

The day before the exam, spend as much time as possible studying — all day, even.

4. Re-write Class Notes

After each class, you should have fleshed out your notes and rewritten them in a neat, organized format. Now, it’s time to take your re-done notes and write them once again.

This time, however, your goal is to condense them down to only the most important material. Ideally, you want your rewritten notes to fit on just one or two sheets of paper.

These sheets should be your main study resource during test preparation.

5. Create a Study Outline

Early in the week, make a long outline that includes many of the details from your notes. Rewrite it a few days later, but cut the material in half.

Shortly before the test, write it one more time; include only the most important information. Quiz yourself on the missing details.

6. Make Your Own Flashcards

Another way to quiz yourself is to make flashcards that you can use for practice written tests.

First, read the term on the front side. Encourage yourself to write out the definition or details of that term. Compare your written answer with what’s on the back of the card.

This can be extra helpful when prepping for an entrance exam like the GRE, though there are a growing number of schools that don’t require GRE scores for admission.

7. Do Sample Problems and Essays from Your Textbook

There are additional things you can do to practice test-taking. For example, crack open your book, and solve problems like the ones you expect to see on the test.

Write out the answers to essay questions as well. There may be suggested essay topics in your textbook.

Part 7 – Memory Improvement Techniques

1. Study Right Before Bed

Although you shouldn’t pull all-nighters, studying right before bedtime can be a great idea.

Sleep helps cement information in your brain. Studies show that you’re more likely to recall information 24 hours later if you went to bed shortly after learning it.

Right before bed, read through your study sheet, quiz yourself on flashcards or recite lists of information.

2. Study Small Chunks at a Time

If you want to remember information over the long haul, don’t try to cram it all in during one sitting.

Instead, use an approach called spaced repetition :

• Break the information into parts
• Learn one new part at a time over the course of days or weeks
• Review your earlier acquisitions each time you study

The brain stores information that it thinks is important. So, when you regularly go over a topic at set intervals over time, it strengthens your memory of it.

3. Tell a Story

Sometimes, you just need to make information silly in order to help it stick in your brain.

To remember a list of items or the particular order of events, make up a humorous story that links those things or words together. It doesn’t necessarily need to make sense; it just needs to be memorable .

4. Change Study Locations Often

Studying the same information in multiple places helps the details stick in your mind better.

Consider some of the following locations:

• Your desk at home
• A coffee shop
• The library
• Your backyard

It’s best to switch between several different study spots instead of always hitting the books in the same place.

5. Swap Topics Regularly

Keeping your brain trained on the same information for long periods of time isn’t beneficial. It’s smarter to jump from one subject to another a few times during a long study session.

Along those same lines, you should study the same material in multiple ways. Research shows that using varied study methods for the same topic helps you perform better on tests.

6. Quiz Yourself

Challenge yourself to see what you can remember. Quizzing yourself is like practicing for the test, and it’s one of the most effective methods of memory retention .

If it’s hard to remember the information at first, don’t worry; the struggle makes it more likely that you’ll remember it in the end.

7. Go Old-school: Use a Pen and Paper

The act of writing answers helps you remember the information. Here are some ways to use writing while studying:

• Recopy your notes
• Write the answers to flashcards
• Make a study sheet
• Practice writing essay answers

Writing by hand is best because it requires your attention and focus.

8. See It & Hear It

Say information out loud, and you’ll be more likely to remember it. You’re engaging your eyes as you read the words, your mouth as you say them, and your ears as you hear yourself.

Scientists call the benefit of speaking information aloud production effect .

Part 8 – Top 10 Study Hacks Backed by Science

1. Grab a Coffee

Drinking coffee (or your preferred high-octane beverage) while you study may help keep you alert so you don’t doze off mid-session. There’s even evidence that caffeine can improve your memory skills.

However, avoid sugary beverages. These could cause your energy level to crash in a few hours.

2. Reward Yourself

Studies show that giving yourself a reward for doing your work helps you enjoy the effort more.

Do it right away; don’t wait until the test is over to celebrate. For example, after finishing a three-hour study session, treat yourself to an ice cream cone or a relaxing bath.

3. Study with Others

Working with a study group holds you accountable so it’s harder to procrastinate on your work.

When you study together, you can fill in gaps in one another’s understanding, and you can quiz each other on the material.

Besides, studying with a group can be fun!

4. Meditate

It may be hard to imagine adding anything else to your packed schedule, but dedicating time to mindfulness practices can really pay off.

Studies show that people who meditate may perform better on tests , and they are generally more attentive.

Mindfulness apps can help you get started with this practice.

5. Hit the Gym

To boost the blood flow to your brain, do half an hour of cardio exercise before sitting down to study.

Aerobic exercise gives your brain a major dose of oxygen and other important nutrients, which may help you think clearly, remember facts and do your best work.

6. Play Some Music

Listening to tunes can help you focus. Studies show that the best study music is anything that features a rhythmic beat .

It’s smart to choose a style that you like. If you like classical, that’s fine, but you could also go for electronica or modern piano solos.

7. Grab Some Walnuts

A diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids helps your brain do its best work.

Good sources include:

• Fish: cod liver oil, salmon and mackerel
• Vegetables: spinach and Brussels sprouts

To calm your pre-test jitters, eat a mix of omega-3 and omega-6 foods.

8. Take Regular Breaks

Your brain needs some downtime. Don’t try to push through for hours on end. Every hour, take a break for several minutes.

Breaks are good for your mental health . They also improve your attention span, your creativity and your productivity.

During a break, it’s best to move around and exercise a bit.

9. Get Some Sleep

Although studying is important, it can’t come at the expense of your rest. Sleep gives your brain a chance to process the information that you’ve learned that day.

If you don’t get enough sleep, you’ll have a hard time focusing and remembering information.

Even during busy test weeks, try to get seven to nine hours of sleep each night.

10. Eliminate Distractions

It’s hard to get much studying done when you’re busy scrolling Instagram. Put away your phone and computer while studying, or at least block your social media apps.

Turn off the television while you work, too.

If you’re studying in a noisy area, put on headphones that can help block the distracting sounds.

Part 9 – The Best Study Apps

1. iStudiez Pro Legend

Scheduling study time is a must, and iStudiez Pro Legend lets you put study sessions, classes and assignments on your calendar. Color coding the entries can help you stay organized.

For each class, you can enter meeting times and homework assignments, and you can keep track of your grades.

2. Dragon Anywhere

Instead of writing notes in the margins of your textbooks, you can use Dragon Anywhere’s voice dictation feature to record your thoughts and insights.

Just be sure to rewrite your dictated notes in your own handwriting later for maximum learning!

3. Evernote

When you’re in school, you have a lot of responsibilities to juggle, but Evernote can help you organize them.

You can add notes and documents to store them in one digital spot, and tagging them will help you quickly pull up all files for a class or a topic.

4. Quizlet Go

Make digital flashcards that you can practice on your mobile device with Quizlet Go .

This means that you can pull out your phone for a quick study session whenever you have a couple of minutes of downtime. You don’t even need internet access to practice these flashcards.

5. My Study Life

Enter your upcoming tests and assignments into My Study Life , and the app will send you reminder messages.

The app has a calendar so you can keep track of your class schedule. It can even notify you when it’s time to go to class.

6. Exam Countdown Lite

You should start studying for tests at least a week in advance. Input the dates for your exams and assignments into Exam Countdown Lite so you’ll have a visual reminder of when you should begin your test prep.

The app can send you notifications as well.

7. Flashcards+

With Chegg’s Flashcards+ , you can make your own digital flashcards or use ones designed by others.

Because you can add images to your cards, you can quiz yourself on the names of famous artworks, important historical artifacts or parts of a scientific diagram.

Organize information into categories by creating a visual mind map on XMind . This can help you classify facts and figures so you see how they relate to one another.

This visual representation can also help you recall the information later.

9. ScannerPro

Do you have piles of handwritten notes everywhere? Once you have written them out, consider scanning them into digital form. ScannerPro lets you use your phone as a scanner.

You can store your scanned files in this app or transfer them to Evernote or another organization system.

Part 10 – Study Skills Worksheets

Could you use more help to develop your study skills? Rutgers University has dozens of study skills worksheets online .

These documents are packed with tips that can help you become a better student. The checklists and charts can help you evaluate your current strengths and organize your work.

Part 11 – Key Takeaways

You’re a busy person, so you need to make the most of every study session.

By now, you should understand the basics of effective studies:

• Schedule study time
• Study regularly
• Minimize distractions
• Read for information
• Write the important stuff down
• Use creative memory tricks
• Quiz yourself
• Be good to your body and your brain

Put these study tips to good use, and you’ll soon learn that you’ve learned how to study smarter.

Essay and dissertation writing skills

Planning your essay

Writing your introduction

Structuring your essay

• Writing essays in science subjects
• Brief video guides to support essay planning and writing
• Writing extended essays and dissertations
• Planning your dissertation writing time

Structuring your dissertation

• Top tips for writing longer pieces of work

Advice on planning and writing essays and dissertations

University essays differ from school essays in that they are less concerned with what you know and more concerned with how you construct an argument to answer the question. This means that the starting point for writing a strong essay is to first unpick the question and to then use this to plan your essay before you start putting pen to paper (or finger to keyboard).

A really good starting point for you are these short, downloadable Tips for Successful Essay Writing and Answering the Question resources. Both resources will help you to plan your essay, as well as giving you guidance on how to distinguish between different sorts of essay questions. 

You may find it helpful to watch this seven-minute video on six tips for essay writing which outlines how to interpret essay questions, as well as giving advice on planning and structuring your writing:

Different disciplines will have different expectations for essay structure and you should always refer to your Faculty or Department student handbook or course Canvas site for more specific guidance.

However, broadly speaking, all essays share the following features:

Essays need an introduction to establish and focus the parameters of the discussion that will follow. You may find it helpful to divide the introduction into areas to demonstrate your breadth and engagement with the essay question. You might define specific terms in the introduction to show your engagement with the essay question; for example, ‘This is a large topic which has been variously discussed by many scientists and commentators. The principal tension is between the views of X and Y who define the main issues as…’ Breadth might be demonstrated by showing the range of viewpoints from which the essay question could be considered; for example, ‘A variety of factors including economic, social and political, influence A and B. This essay will focus on the social and economic aspects, with particular emphasis on…..’

Watch this two-minute video to learn more about how to plan and structure an introduction:

The main body of the essay should elaborate on the issues raised in the introduction and develop an argument(s) that answers the question. It should consist of a number of self-contained paragraphs each of which makes a specific point and provides some form of evidence to support the argument being made. Remember that a clear argument requires that each paragraph explicitly relates back to the essay question or the developing argument.

• Conclusion: An essay should end with a conclusion that reiterates the argument in light of the evidence you have provided; you shouldn’t use the conclusion to introduce new information.
• References: You need to include references to the materials you’ve used to write your essay. These might be in the form of footnotes, in-text citations, or a bibliography at the end. Different systems exist for citing references and different disciplines will use various approaches to citation. Ask your tutor which method(s) you should be using for your essay and also consult your Department or Faculty webpages for specific guidance in your discipline. 

Essay writing in science subjects

If you are writing an essay for a science subject you may need to consider additional areas, such as how to present data or diagrams. This five-minute video gives you some advice on how to approach your reading list, planning which information to include in your answer and how to write for your scientific audience – the video is available here:

A PDF providing further guidance on writing science essays for tutorials is available to download.

Short videos to support your essay writing skills

There are many other resources at Oxford that can help support your essay writing skills and if you are short on time, the Oxford Study Skills Centre has produced a number of short (2-minute) videos covering different aspects of essay writing, including:

• Approaching different types of essay questions  
• Structuring your essay  
• Writing an introduction  
• Making use of evidence in your essay writing  
• Writing your conclusion

Extended essays and dissertations

Longer pieces of writing like extended essays and dissertations may seem like quite a challenge from your regular essay writing. The important point is to start with a plan and to focus on what the question is asking. A PDF providing further guidance on planning Humanities and Social Science dissertations is available to download.

Planning your time effectively

Try not to leave the writing until close to your deadline, instead start as soon as you have some ideas to put down onto paper. Your early drafts may never end up in the final work, but the work of committing your ideas to paper helps to formulate not only your ideas, but the method of structuring your writing to read well and conclude firmly.

Although many students and tutors will say that the introduction is often written last, it is a good idea to begin to think about what will go into it early on. For example, the first draft of your introduction should set out your argument, the information you have, and your methods, and it should give a structure to the chapters and sections you will write. Your introduction will probably change as time goes on but it will stand as a guide to your entire extended essay or dissertation and it will help you to keep focused.

The structure of  extended essays or dissertations will vary depending on the question and discipline, but may include some or all of the following:

• The background information to - and context for - your research. This often takes the form of a literature review.
• Explanation of the focus of your work.
• Explanation of the value of this work to scholarship on the topic.
• List of the aims and objectives of the work and also the issues which will not be covered because they are outside its scope.

The main body of your extended essay or dissertation will probably include your methodology, the results of research, and your argument(s) based on your findings.

The conclusion is to summarise the value your research has added to the topic, and any further lines of research you would undertake given more time or resources. 

Tips on writing longer pieces of work

Approaching each chapter of a dissertation as a shorter essay can make the task of writing a dissertation seem less overwhelming. Each chapter will have an introduction, a main body where the argument is developed and substantiated with evidence, and a conclusion to tie things together. Unlike in a regular essay, chapter conclusions may also introduce the chapter that will follow, indicating how the chapters are connected to one another and how the argument will develop through your dissertation.

For further guidance, watch this two-minute video on writing longer pieces of work . 

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• Tips for Reading an Assignment Prompt
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Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, how to study for a test: 17 expert tips.

Other High School

Do you have a big exam coming up, but you're not sure how to prepare for it? Are you looking to improve your grades or keep them strong but don't know the best way to do this? We're here to help! In this guide, we've compiled the 17 best tips for how to study for a test. No matter what grade you're in or what subject you're studying, these tips will give you ways to study faster and more effectively. If you're tired of studying for hours only to forget everything when it comes time to take a test, follow these tips so you can be well prepared for any exam you take.

How to Study for a Test: General Tips

The four tips below are useful for any test or class you're preparing for. Learn the best way to study for a test from these tips and be prepared for any future exams you take.

#1: Stick to a Study Schedule

If you're having trouble studying regularly, creating a study schedule can be a huge help. Doing something regularly helps your mind get used to it. If you set aside a time to regularly study and stick to it, it'll eventually become a habit that's (usually) easy to stick to. Getting into a fixed habit of studying will help you improve your concentration and mental stamina over time. And, just like any other training, your ability to study will improve with time and effort.

Take an honest look at your schedule (this includes schoolwork, extracurriculars, work, etc.) and decide how often you can study without making your schedule too packed. Aim for at least an hour twice a week. Next, decide when you want to study, such as Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Sundays from 7-8pm, and stick to your schedule . In the beginning, you may need to tweak your schedule, but you'll eventually find the study rhythm that works best for you. The important thing is that you commit to it and study during the same times each week as often as possible.

#2: Start Studying Early and Study for Shorter Periods

Some people can cram for several hours the night before the test and still get a good grade. However, this is rarer than you may hope. Most people need to see information several times, over a period of time, for them to really commit it to memory. This means that, instead of doing a single long study session, break your studying into smaller sessions over a longer period of time. Five one-hour study sessions over a week will be less stressful and more effective than a single five-hour cram session. It may take a bit of time for you to learn how long and how often you need to study for a class, but once you do you'll be able to remember the information you need and reduce some of the stress that comes from schoolwork, tests, and studying.

#3: Remove Distractions

When you're studying, especially if it's for a subject you don't enjoy, it can be extremely tempting to take "quick breaks" from your work. There are untold distractions all around us that try to lure our concentration away from the task at hand. However, giving in to temptation can be an awful time suck. A quick glance at your phone can easily turn into an hour of wasting time on the internet, and that won't help you get the score you're looking for. In order to avoid distractions, remove distractions completely from your study space.

Eat a meal or a snack before you begin studying so you're not tempted to rummage through the fridge as a distraction. Silence your phone and keep it in an entirely different room. If you're studying on a computer, turn your WIFI off if it's not essential to have. Make a firm rule that you can't get up to check on whatever has you distracted until your allotted study time is up.

#4: Reward Yourself When You Hit a Milestone

To make studying a little more fun, give yourself a small reward whenever you hit a study milestone. For example, you might get to eat a piece of candy for every 25 flashcards you test yourself on, or get to spend 10 minutes on your phone for every hour you spend studying. You can also give yourself larger rewards for longer-term goals, such as going out to ice cream after a week of good study habits. Studying effectively isn't always easy, and by giving yourself rewards, you'll keep yourself motivated.

Our pets are not the only ones who deserve rewards.

Tips for Learning and Remembering Information

While the default method of studying is reading through class notes, this is actually one of the least effective ways of learning and remembering information. In this section we cover four much more useful methods. You'll notice they all involve active learning, where you're actively reworking the material, rather than just passively reading through notes. Active studying has been shown to be a much more effective way to understand and retain information, and it's what we recommend for any test you're preparing for.

#5: Rewrite the Material in Your Own Words

It can be easy to get lost in a textbook and look back over a page, only to realize you don't remember anything about what you just read. Fortunately, there's a way to avoid this.

For any class that requires lots of reading, be sure to stop periodically as you read. Pause at the end of a paragraph/page/chapter (how much you can read at once and still remember clearly will likely depend on the material you're reading) and—without looking!—think about what the text just stated. Re-summarize it in your own words, and write down bullet points if that helps. Now, glance back over the material and make sure you summarized the information accurately and included all the important details. Take note of whatever you missed, then pick up your reading where you left off.

Whether you choose to summarize the text aloud or write down notes, re-wording the text is a very effective study tool. By rephrasing the text in your own words, you're ensuring you're actually remembering the information and absorbing its meaning, rather than just moving your eyes across a page without taking in what you're reading.

#6: Make Flashcards

Flashcards are a popular study tool for good reason! They're easy to make, easy to carry around, easy to pull out for a quick study session, and they're a more effective way of studying than just reading through pages of notes. Making your own flashcards is especially effective because you'll remember more information just through the act of writing it down on the cards. For any subjects in which you must remember connections between terms and information, such as formulas, vocabulary, equations, or historical dates, flashcards are the way to go. We recommend using the Waterfall Method when you study with flashcards since it's the fastest way to learn all the material on the cards.

#7: Teach the Material to Someone Else

Teaching someone else is a great way to organize the information you've been studying and check your grasp of it. It also often shows you that you know more of the material than you think! Find a study-buddy, or a friend/relative/pet or even just a figurine or stuffed animal and explain the material to them as if they're hearing about it for the first time. Whether the person you're teaching is real or not, teaching material aloud requires you to re-frame the information in new ways and think more carefully about how all the elements fit together. The act of running through the material in this new way also helps you more easily lock it in your mind.

#8: Make Your Own Study Guides

Even if your teacher provides you with study guides, we highly recommend making your own study materials. Just making the materials will help the information sink into your mind, and when you make your own study guides, you can customize them to the way you learn best, whether that's flashcards, images, charts etc. For example, if you're studying for a biology test, you can draw your own cell and label the components, make a Krebs cycle diagram, map out a food chain, etc. If you're a visual learner (or just enjoy adding images to your study materials), include pictures and diagrams.

Sometimes making your own charts and diagrams will mean recreating the ones in your textbook from memory, and sometimes it will mean putting different pieces of information together yourself. Whatever the diagram type and whatever the class, writing your information down and making pictures out of it will be a great way to help you remember the material.

How to Study for a History Test

History tests are notorious for the amount of facts and dates you need to know. Make it easier to retain the information by using these two tips.

#9: Know Causes and Effects

It's easy and tempting to simply review long lists of dates of important events, but this likely won't be enough for you to do well on a history test, especially if it has any writing involved. Instead of only learning the important dates of, say, WWI, focus on learning the factors that led to the war and what its lasting impacts on the world were. By understanding the cause and effects of major events, you'll be able to link them to the larger themes you're learning in history class. Also, having more context about an event can often make it easier to remember little details and dates that go along with it.

#10: Make Your Own Timelines

Sometimes you need to know a lot of dates for a history test. In these cases, don't think passively reading your notes is enough. Unless you have an amazing memory, it'll take you a long time for all those dates to sink into your head if you only read through a list of them. Instead, make your own timeline.

Make your first timeline very neat, with all the information you need to know organized in a way that makes sense to you (this will typically be chronologically, but you may also choose to organize it by theme). Make this timeline as clear and helpful as you can, using different colors, highlighting important information, drawing arrows to connecting information, etc. Then, after you've studied enough to feel you have a solid grasp of the dates, rewrite your timeline from memory. This one doesn't have to be neat and organized, but include as much information as you remember. Continue this pattern of studying and writing timelines from memory until you have all the information memorized.

Know which direction events occur in to prepare for history tests.

How to Study for a Math Test

Math tests can be particularly intimating to many students, but if you're well-prepared for them, they're often straightforward.

#11: Redo Homework Problems

More than most tests, math tests usually are quite similar to the homework problems you've been doing. This means your homework contains dozens of practice problems you can work through. Try to review practice problems from every topic you'll be tested on, and focus especially on problems that you struggled with. Remember, don't just review how you solved the problem the first time. Instead, rewrite the problem, hide your notes, and solve it from scratch. Check your answer when you're finished. That'll ensure you're committing the information to memory and actually have a solid grasp of the concepts.

#12: Make a Formula Sheet

You're likely using a lot of formulas in your math class, and it can be hard remembering what they are and when to use them. Throughout the year, as you learn a new important formula, add it to a formula sheet you've created. For each formula, write out the formula, include any notes about when to use it, and include a sample problem that uses the formula. When your next math test rolls around, you'll have a useful guide to the key information you've been learning.

How to Study for an English Test

Whether your English test involves writing or not, here are two tips to follow as you prepare for it.

#13: Take Notes as You Read

When you're assigned reading for English class, it can be tempting to get through the material as quickly as possible and then move on to something else. However, this is not a good way to retain information, and come test day, you may be struggling to remember a lot of what you read. Highlighting important passages is also too passive a way to study. The way to really retain the information you read is to take notes. This takes more time and effort, but it'll help you commit the information to memory. Plus, when it comes time to study, you'll have a handy study guide ready and won't have to frantically flip through the book to try to remember what you read. The more effort you put into your notes, the more helpful they'll be. Consider organizing them by theme, character, or however else makes sense to you.

#14: Create Sample Essay Outlines

If the test you're taking requires you to write an essay, one of the best ways to be prepared is to develop essay outlines as you study. First, think about potential essay prompts your teacher might choose you to write about. Consider major themes, characters, plots, literary comparisons, etc., you discussed in class, and write down potential essay prompts. Just doing this will get you thinking critically about the material and help you be more prepared for the test.

Next, write outlines for the prompts you came up with (or, if you came up with a lot of prompts, choose the most likely to outline). These outlines don't need to contain much information, just your thesis and a few key points for each body paragraph. Even if your teacher chooses a different prompt than what you came up with, just thinking about what to write about and how you'll organize your thoughts will help you be more prepared for the test.

Fancy pen and ink not required to write essay outlines.

What to Do the Night Before the Test

Unfortunately, the night before a test is when many students make study choices that actually hurt their chances of getting a good grade. These three tips will help you do some final review in a way that helps you be at the top of your game the next day.

#15: Get Enough Sleep

One of the absolute best ways to prepare for a test-any test-is to be well-rested when you sit down to take it. Staying up all night cramming information isn't an effective way of studying, and being tired the next day can seriously impact your test-taking skills. Aim to get a solid eight hours of sleep the night before the test so that you can wake up refreshed and at the top of your test-taking game.

#16: Review Major Concepts

It can be tempting to try to go through all your notes the night before a test to review as much information as possible, but this will likely only leave you stressed to and overwhelmed by the information you're trying to remember. If you've been regularly reviewing information throughout the class, you shouldn't need much more than a quick review of major ideas, and perhaps a few smaller details you have difficulty remembering. Even if you've gotten behind on studying and are trying to review a lot of information, resist the information to cram and focus on only a few major topics. By keeping your final night review manageable, you have a better chance of committing that information to memory, and you'll avoid lack of sleep from late night cramming.

#17: Study Right Before You Go to Sleep

Studies have shown that if you review material right before you go to sleep, you have better memory recall the next day. (This is also true if you study the information right when you wake up.) This doesn't mean you should cram all night long (remember tip #15), but if there are a few key pieces of information you especially want to review or are having trouble committing to memory, review them right before you go to bed. Sweet dreams!

Summary: The Best Way to Study for a Test

If you're not sure how to study for a test effectively, you might end up wasting hours of time only to find that you've barely learned anything at all. Overall, the best way to study for a test, whether you want to know how to study for a math test or how to study for a history test, is to study regularly and practice active learning. Cramming information and trying to remember things just by looking over notes will rarely get you the score you want. Even though the tips we suggest do take time and effort on your part, they'll be worth it when you get the score you're working towards.

What's Next?

Want tips specifically on how to study for AP exams? We've outlined the f ive steps you need to follow to ace your AP classes.

Taking the SAT and need study tips? Our guide has every study tip you should follow to reach your SAT goal score.

Or are you taking the ACT instead? We've got you covered! Read our guide to learn four different ways to study for the ACT so you can choose the study plan that's best for you.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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Effective Study Strategies

So, what are effective study strategies for long-term learning, retrieval practice 1.

Retrieval practice is when you actively recall information (concepts, ideas, etc) from memory and “put it on paper” in different formats (writing, flow charts, diagrams, graphs). At the LSC we often call retrieval practice “Blank Page Testing,” because you just start with a blank piece of paper and write things down. It’s especially helpful because it shows you what you do (and do not) understand, so you can identify what topics you need to review/practice more. Retrieval practice can be challenging and requires a lot of mental effort — but this struggle to remember, recall, and make connections is how we learn.

To learn more about Blank Page Testing , see Mike Chen’s video:

Interleaving 2

Interleaving is when you work on or practice several related skills or concepts together. You practice one skill or concept for a short period of time, then switch to another one, and perhaps another, then back to the first. It not only helps you learn better, it keeps you from falling behind in your other classes! So please go ahead and do some work for the classes you don’t have an exam in this week! It will not only help you learn your exam material better, it will help you stay caught up.

Spaced (or distributed) practice 3

In spaced practice, you spread out practice or study of material in spaced intervals, which leads to better learning and retention. Spaced practice is the opposite of cramming!

Get sleep and make sure you eat and stay hydrated!

Your brain works better when you are rested, hydrated, and nourished. Though it might seem effective to push through without taking a break and stay up studying all night (see the page on strategies that don’t work), it won’t help you in the long run. Instead, develop a study plan, eat a good meal, and have a bottle of water nearby when you take your exam. You will learn and understand the material better if you have a plan – and you will probably need to this information for the next prelim anyway!

Tip: Piper knows that sleeping with your books under your pillow can help with learning! How does this magic work, you might wonder? Though the information in your book won’t travel via osmosis to your brain through the pillow, you will get sleep which improves your long-term learning! Sleep and a good study plan are a great study strategy combo!

Up Next: Guidelines for creating a study schedule

1 Agarwal, P. K. (2020). Retrieval Practice: A Powerful Strategy for Learning – Retrieval Practice. Unleash the Science of Learning. Retrieved from https://www.retrievalpractice.org/retrievalpractice .

2 Pan, S.C. (2015). The Interleaving Effect: Mixing It Up Boosts Learning. Retrieved from https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-interleaving-effect-mixing-it-up-boosts-learning/

3 Weinstein, Y. & Smith, M. (2016). Learn How to Study Using… Spaced Practice. Retrieved from https://www.learningscientists.org/blog/2016/7/21-1

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• Effective Studying

How to Effectively Study

Research-supported techniques.

Outside of lecture, university students are commonly expected to master course content on their own. However, multiple research studies have found that many university students are commonly unaware of, and seldom use, effective learning techniques. 1,2 In the following section (and the linked pages below) we discuss important do’s and don’ts of successful learning, plus introduce several of the most promising and effective evidence-based learning methods . These are backed by a growing body of learning science research – a substantial portion of which has been conducted right here at UCSD and in this very department. By taking advantage of these methods, students can transform their learning activities to be more efficient (make better use of time) and more effective (resulting in learning that is more comprehensive and lasts longer).

What Students Need to Do to Succeed

Psychology courses, as well as those in many other departments and at other universities, revolve around high-stakes tests (for example, midterms, final exams). In fact, on average, 80% of the course grade in PSYC classes at UCSD is determined by exam performance. 3 In order to perform well on such exams, it is crucial for students to master a wide range of course content.

How can that objective be accomplished? Through the use of evidence-based learning methods. Note that these are not described as “study methods”. Although it is common to describe preparing for an exam as “studying”, which is why this page is titled as such, simply “studying” information multiple times (“restudying”, “rereading”, or “reviewing”) is by itself often not very effective. 4,5 Instead, as described below, other methods are far more powerful at improving the learning of course content.

The Most Effective Learning Techniques

If you have only limited time to read this page, at least check out the following two points. For further details, click on the links to learn more.

Based on decades of learning science research, the two most effective methods known to date are:

• Spaced practice / distributed practice – learning that occurs over multiple sessions at different points in time (for example, revisiting a textbook chapter once every three days). This technique refers to when you should be preparing for course exams (that is, multiple sessions spread out over several weeks).

► Further information: Spaced Practice

• Retrieval practice / practice testing – instead of simply restudying information, attempting to recall that information from memory (such as by taking a practice test). This technique refers to what you should be doing to prepare for course exams (that is, test yourself via practice tests or other recall-based techniques).

► Further information: Retrieval Practice

Spaced practice involves when you should “study” and retrieval practice involves how you should  “study”. When you use both (for instance, you can prepare for your exams using a spaced practice schedule and then use retrieval practice during each session), they make a powerful combination.

Additionally, if you perform retrieval practice across multiple days – and, each time, practice recalling information until you attain 100% accuracy (a method called successive relearning ) – then recent research shows that your ability to retain that information over long periods of time is maximized. 6

Finally, besides spaced and retrieval practice, there are some additional learning techniques that you may wish to try. These included interleaved practice, self-explanation, and others.

► Further information: Other Learning Techniques

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of these techniques, please consider attending this department’s “How to Study Less and Remember More” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).
• How to Study Less and Remember More [ PDF ]

Further Resources

• UCSD Tutoring
• Scientific American article, “What Works, What Doesn’t" (2013)
• Make it Stick: The Science of Successful Learning (2014)
• Cornell University: How to Study Effectively (videos)

1 Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2007). The promise and perils of self-regulated study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , 14 (2), 219-224. 2 Karpicke, J. D., Butler, A. C., & Roediger III, H. L. (2009). Metacognitive strategies in student learning: do students practise retrieval when they study on their own? Memory , 17 (4), 471-479. 3 Based on analysis of PSYC 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 60, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 120, 144, 145, 154, 163, 164, 161, 171, 181, 182, 190, 191, and 193 courses at UCSD, taught between 2013-2017. 4 Pashler, H., Bain, P. M., Bottge, B. A., Graesser, A., Koedinger, K., McDaniel, M., & Metcalfe, J. (2007). Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning. IES Practice Guide. NCER 2007-2004. National Center for Education Research . 5 Dunlosky, J., Rawson, K. A., Marsh, E. J., Nathan, M. J., & Willingham, D. T. (2013). Improving students’ learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology. Psychological Science in the Public Interest , 14 (1), 4-58. 6 Rawson, K. A., Dunlosky, J., & Sciartelli, S. M. (2013). The power of successive relearning: Improving performance on course exams and long-term retention. Educational Psychology Review , 25 (4), 523-548.

Prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology, graphic adapted with permission from ccnlab.net under creative commons attribution-share alike 4.0 international license..

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• How to Do Research for an Excellent Essay: The Complete Guide

One of the biggest secrets to writing a good essay is the Boy Scouts’ motto: ‘be prepared’. Preparing for an essay – by conducting effective research – lays the foundations for a brilliant piece of writing, and it’s every bit as important as the actual writing part. Many students skimp on this crucial stage, or sit in the library not really sure where to start; and it shows in the quality of their essays. This just makes it easier for you to get ahead of your peers, and we’re going to show you how. In this article, we take you through what you need to do in order to conduct effective research and use your research time to best effect.

Allow enough time

First and foremost, it’s vital to allow enough time for your research. For this reason, don’t leave your essay until the last minute . If you start writing without having done adequate research, it will almost certainly show in your essay’s lack of quality. The amount of research time needed will vary according to whether you’re at Sixth Form or university, and according to how well you know the topic and what teaching you’ve had on it, but make sure you factor in more time than you think you’ll need. You may come across a concept that takes you longer to understand than you’d expected, so it’s better to allow too much time than too little.

Read the essay question and thoroughly understand it

If you don’t have a thorough understanding of what the essay question is asking you to do, you put yourself at risk of going in the wrong direction with your research. So take the question, read it several times and pull out the key things it’s asking you to do. The instructions in the question are likely to have some bearing on the nature of your research. If the question says “Compare”, for example, this will set you up for a particular kind of research, during which you’ll be looking specifically for points of comparison; if the question asks you to “Discuss”, your research focus may be more on finding different points of view and formulating your own.

Begin with a brainstorm

Start your research time by brainstorming what you already know. Doing this means that you can be clear about exactly what you’re already aware of, and you can identify the gaps in your knowledge so that you don’t end up wasting time by reading books that will tell you what you already know. This gives your research more of a direction and allows you to be more specific in your efforts to find out certain things. It’s also a gentle way of introducing yourself to the task and putting yourself in the right frame of mind for learning about the topic at hand.

Achieve a basic understanding before delving deeper

If the topic is new to you and your brainstorm has yielded few ideas, you’ll need to acquire a basic understanding of the topic before you begin delving deeper into your research. If you don’t, and you start by your research by jumping straight in at the deep end, as it were, you’ll struggle to grasp the topic. This also means that you may end up being too swayed by a certain source, as you haven’t the knowledge to question it properly. You need sufficient background knowledge to be able to take a critical approach to each of the sources you read. So, start from the very beginning. It’s ok to use Wikipedia or other online resources to give you an introduction to a topic, though bear in mind that these can’t be wholly relied upon. If you’ve covered the topic in class already, re-read the notes you made so that you can refresh your mind before you start further investigation.

Working through your reading list

If you’ve been given a reading list to work from, be organised in how you work through each of the items on it. Try to get hold of as many of the books on it as you can before you start, so that you have them all easily to hand, and can refer back to things you’ve read and compare them with other perspectives. Plan the order in which you’re going to work through them and try to allocate a specific amount of time to each of them; this ensures that you allow enough time to do each of them justice and that focus yourself on making the most of your time with each one. It’s a good idea to go for the more general resources before honing in on the finer points mentioned in more specialised literature. Think of an upside-down pyramid and how it starts off wide at the top and becomes gradually narrower; this is the sort of framework you should apply to your research.

Ask a librarian

Library computer databases can be confusing things, and can add an extra layer of stress and complexity to your research if you’re not used to using them. The librarian is there for a reason, so don’t be afraid to go and ask if you’re not sure where to find a particular book on your reading list. If you’re in need of somewhere to start, they should be able to point you in the direction of the relevant section of the library so that you can also browse for books that may yield useful information.

Use the index

If you haven’t been given specific pages to read in the books on your reading list, make use of the index (and/or table of contents) of each book to help you find relevant material. It sounds obvious, but some students don’t think to do this and battle their way through heaps of irrelevant chapters before finding something that will be useful for their essay.

Taking notes

As you work through your reading, take notes as you go along rather than hoping you’ll remember everything you’ve read. Don’t indiscriminately write down everything – only the bits that will be useful in answering the essay question you’ve been set. If you write down too much, you risk writing an essay that’s full of irrelevant material and getting lower grades as a result. Be concise, and summarise arguments in your own words when you make notes (this helps you learn it better, too, because you actually have to think about how best to summarise it). You may want to make use of small index cards to force you to be brief with what you write about each point or topic. We’ve covered effective note-taking extensively in another article, which you can read here . Note-taking is a major part of the research process, so don’t neglect it. Your notes don’t just come in useful in the short-term, for completing your essay, but they should also be helpful when it comes to revision time, so try to keep them organised.

Research every side of the argument

Never rely too heavily on one resource without referring to other possible opinions; it’s bad academic practice. You need to be able to give a balanced argument in an essay, and that means researching a range of perspectives on whatever problem you’re tackling. Keep a note of the different arguments, along with the evidence in support of or against each one, ready to be deployed into an essay structure that works logically through each one. If you see a scholar’s name cropping up again and again in what you read, it’s worth investigating more about them even if you haven’t specifically been told to do so. Context is vital in academia at any level, so influential figures are always worth knowing about.

Keep a dictionary by your side

You could completely misunderstand a point you read if you don’t know what one important word in the sentence means. For that reason, it’s a good idea to keep a dictionary by your side at all times as you conduct your research. Not only does this help you fully understand what you’re reading, but you also learn new words that you might be able to use in your forthcoming essay or a future one . Growing your vocabulary is never a waste of time!

Start formulating your own opinion

As you work through reading these different points of view, think carefully about what you’ve read and note your own response to different opinions. Get into the habit of questioning sources and make sure you’re not just repeating someone else’s opinion without challenging it. Does an opinion make sense? Does it have plenty of evidence to back it up? What are the counter-arguments, and on balance, which sways you more? Demonstrating your own intelligent thinking will set your essay apart from those of your peers, so think about these things as you conduct your research.

Be careful with web-based research

Although, as we’ve said already, it’s fine to use Wikipedia and other online resources to give you a bit of an introduction to a topic you haven’t covered before, be very careful when using the internet for researching an essay. Don’t take Wikipedia as gospel; don’t forget, anybody can edit it! We wouldn’t advise using the internet as the basis of your essay research – it’s simply not academically rigorous enough, and you don’t know how out of date a particular resource might be. Even if your Sixth Form teachers may not question where you picked up an idea you’ve discussed in your essays, it’s still not a good habit to get into and you’re unlikely to get away with it at a good university. That said, there are still reliable academic resources available via the internet; these can be found in dedicated sites that are essentially online libraries, such as JSTOR. These are likely to be a little too advanced if you’re still in Sixth Form, but you’ll almost certainly come across them once you get to university.

Look out for footnotes

In an academic publication, whether that’s a book or a journal article, footnotes are a great place to look for further ideas for publications that might yield useful information. Plenty can be hidden away in footnotes, and if a writer is disparaging or supporting the ideas of another academic, you could look up the text in question so that you can include their opinion too, and whether or not you agree with them, for extra brownie points.

Don’t save doing all your own references until last

If you’re still in Sixth Form, you might not yet be required to include academic references in your essays, but for the sake of a thorough guide to essay research that will be useful to you in the future, we’re going to include this point anyway (it will definitely come in useful when you get to university, so you may as well start thinking about it now!). As you read through various books and find points you think you’re going to want to make in your essays, make sure you note down where you found these points as you go along (author’s first and last name, the publication title, publisher, publication date and page number). When you get to university you will be expected to identify your sources very precisely, so it’s a good habit to get into. Unfortunately, many students forget to do this and then have a difficult time of going back through their essay adding footnotes and trying to remember where they found a particular point. You’ll save yourself a great deal of time and effort if you simply note down your academic references as you go along. If you are including footnotes, don’t forget to add each publication to a main bibliography, to be included at the end of your essay, at the same time.

Putting in the background work required to write a good essay can seem an arduous task at times, but it’s a fundamental step that can’t simply be skipped. The more effort you put in at this stage, the better your essay will be and the easier it will be to write. Use the tips in this article and you’ll be well on your way to an essay that impresses!

To get even more prepared for essay writing you might also want to consider attending an Oxford Summer School .

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| 6 June 2024

How To Study Effectively? 10 Best Study Techniques | USAHS

Is your current study method reading a textbook repeatedly, hoping something will stick? If so, do you find yourself stressed out because you can’t memorize such a vast quantity of information in such a short time?

As a grad student, it’s imperative to develop effective time management and study techniques to help you retain the most information . In grad school, cramming the night before doesn’t cut it anymore. Learn a new strategy and try some of these tips for how to study effectively.

Set the Stage

Before you experiment with any of the different studying methods we discuss, create the conditions in your body and external environment to learn and retain information. Here are some pre-studying techniques worth trying:

• Get a good night’s sleep: A 2019 study found a positive relationship between students’ grades and how much sleep they’re getting. 1 However, this doesn’t only mean getting eight hours of sleep before a big test. What matters even more is getting enough sleep for several nights before you do most of your studying.
• Switch up your study environment: This might not seem like a promising strategy for how to study effectively, but studies show that switching up your environment can increase recall performance. 2 Instead of studying at home every day, try checking out a new coffee spot each week or heading to your local library. A change in scenery can be one of the best study methods to improve your memory and concentration levels.
• Stick with an environment that works: If you have a good study space at home or a café that is reliably productive, it makes sense to stick with this when you are under pressure.
• Listen to calming music: You can listen to any music you like, but many agree that tuning into classical, instrumental and lo-fi beats is one of the best ways to study and can help you pay attention to the task. Songs with lyrics can be distracting.
• Eliminate distractions: Silence your phone and annoying background noises such as the TV or radio. Make a pact to avoid checking social media until the end of your study session.
• Snack on smart food: Coffee and candy will give you a temporary boost, but then you’ll have a blood sugar crash. For energy that is more focused and sustainable, try healthy snacks such as edamame, apples or nuts. 3

10 Study Methods & Tips That Actually Work

1. the sq3r studying technique.

The SQ3R method can be one of the best studying techniques to help students identify key facts and retain information within their textbook. SQ3R (or SQRRR) is an acronym that stands for the five steps of the reading comprehension process. 4 Try this process for a more efficient and effective study session:

• Survey: Instead of reading the entire book, start by skimming the first chapter and taking notes on headings, subheadings, images or other standout features like charts.
• Question: Formulate questions around the chapter’s content, such as: What is this chapter about? What do I already know about this subject?
• Read: Begin reading the chapter and look for answers to the questions you formulated.
• Recite: After reading a section, summarize in your own words what you just read. Try recalling and identifying major points and answering questions from the second step.
• Review: Once you have finished the chapter, review the material to fully understand it. Quiz yourself on the questions you created and re-read any portions you need to.

You can try these study techniques for college before taking your final exam.

2. Retrieval Practice

Retrieval practice is a studying technique based on remembering at a later time. 5 Recalling an answer to a question improves learning more than looking for the answer in your textbook. Remembering and writing down the answer to a flashcard is more effective than thinking you know the answer and flipping the card over early.

If you practice retrieval, you are more likely to remember the information later. Below are some ways for how to study effectively by integrating the retrieval process into your routine.

• Utilize practice tests: Use practice tests or questions to quiz yourself without looking at your book or notes.
• Craft unique questions: Be your teacher and create questions you think would be on a test. If you’re in a study group, encourage others to do the same and trade questions.
• Use flashcards: Create flashcards, but practice your retrieval technique. Instead of flipping a card over prematurely, write the answer down and check.

3. Spaced Practice

Spaced practice, or distributed practice is one of the best ways to study complex material. 6 It encourages students to study over an extended period instead of cramming the night before. When our brains almost forget something, they work harder to recall that information. Spacing out your studying allows your mind to make connections between ideas and build upon the knowledge that can be easily recalled later.

To try this study technique, review your material in spaced intervals similar to the schedule below:

• Day 1: Learn the material in class.
• Day 2: Revisit and review.
• Day 3: Revisit and review.
• After one week: Revisit and review.
• After two weeks: Revisit and review.

When figuring out how to study effectively, It’s important to start planning early. At the beginning of each semester, schedule time each day to study and review the material. Even if your exams are months away, this will help you hold yourself accountable.

4. The PQ4R Method

Similar to the SQ3R method, PQ4R is an acronym that stands for the six steps in the process. 7 It’s one of the best study methods because it takes an active approach to learning. By implementing it, you can improve memorization and understanding of a topic.

• Preview: Preview the information before you start reading to get an idea of the subject. Skim the material and read only the headers, subheadings, and highlighted text.
• Question: Ask yourself questions related to the topic, such as: What do I expect to learn? What do I already know about this topic?
• Read: Read the information one section at a time and try to identify answers to your questions.
• Reflect: Did you answer all of your questions? If not, go back and see if you can find the answer.
• Recite: In your own words, speak or write down a summary of the information you just read.
• Review: Look over the material again and answer any remaining questions.

5. The Feynman Technique

The Feynman Technique is one of the more effective study techniques of learning a concept quickly by explaining it in plain and simple terms. 8 It’s based on the idea, “If you want to understand something well, try to explain it simply.” What that means is, by attempting to explain a concept in our own words, we are likely to understand it a lot faster.

How it works:  

• Set the Stage: Write the subject or concept you are studying at the top of a sheet of paper and jot down everything you know about it
• ELI5: Then, explain it in your own words as if you were teaching someone without a basic understanding of it.
• Assess & Study: Review what you wrote and identify areas where you were wrong. Then, go back to your notes or reading material and figure out the correct answer.
• Organize, Convey & Review: Lastly, if there are any areas in your writing where you used technical terms or complex language, go back and rewrite these sections in simpler terms for someone who doesn’t have the educational background you have. Review your new understanding of the subject.

6. Leitner System

The Leitner System is one of the best study techniques based on flashcards. 9 Ideally, keep your cards in several boxes to track when to study each set. Every card starts in Box 1. If you get a card right, move it to the next box. If you get a card wrong, move it down a box or keep it in Box 1 (if it’s already there).

Each box determines how much you will study each set of cards, similar to the following schedule:

• Every day: Box 1
• Every two days: Box 2
• Every four days: Box 3
• Every nine days: Box 4
• Every 14 days: Box 5

7. Color-Coded Notes

Messy notes can make it hard to recall the critical points of a lecture. Writing in color is one of the best study methods because it’s a dynamic way to organize new information. It also helps you review and prioritize the most important ideas.

A 2019 study found that color can improve a person’s memory performance. 10 That same study found that warm colors (red and yellow) “can create a learning environment that is positive and motivating that can help learners not only to have a positive perception toward the content but also to engage and interact more with the learning materials.” It also reported that warmer colors “increase attention and elicit excitement and information.”

Writing in color may seem like a no-brainer, but keep these tips for how to study effectively in mind:

• Write down key points in red.
• Highlight important information in yellow.
• Organize topics by color.
• Don’t color everything—just the key information.

8. Mind Mapping

If you’re a visual learner, try mind mapping. It’s one of the most effective study techniques because it allows you to visually organize information in a diagram. 11 First, you write a word in the center of a blank page. From there, you write main ideas and keywords and connect them directly to the central concept. Other related ideas will continue to branch out.

The structure of a mind map is related to how our brains store and retrieve information. Mind mapping your notes instead of just writing them down can improve your reading comprehension. 11 It’s one of the best studying techniques for enabling you to see the big picture by communicating the hierarchy and relationships between concepts and ideas.

So, how do you do it?

• Grab a blank sheet of paper or use an online tool and write your study topic in the center, such as “child development.” 12
• Connect one of your main ideas (i.e., a chapter of your book or notes) to the main topic, such as “developmental stages.”
• Connect sub-branches of supporting ideas to your main branch. This is the association of ideas. For example, “Sensorimotor,” “Preoperational,” “Concrete operational,” and “Formal operational.”
• TIP: Use different colors for each branch and draw pictures if it helps.

9. Exercise Before Studying

Exercise fights fatigue and can increase energy levels. 13 If you’re struggling with how to study effectively, consider adding an exercise routine to your day. It doesn’t have to be a full hour at the gym. It can be a 20-minute workout at home or a brisk walk around your neighborhood. Anything to get your heart rate pumping. Exercising before you study:

• Kickstarts brain function and can help improve memory and cognitive performance. 14
• Releases endorphins, which can improve your mood and reduce stress levels . 15

10. Study Before Bed

Sleep is crucial for brain function, memory formation, and learning. Studying before you sleep, whether it is reviewing flashcards or notes, can help improve recall. 16 According to Scott Cairney, a researcher from the University of York in the United Kingdom:

“When you are awake, you learn new things, but when you are asleep, you refine them, making it easier to retrieve them and apply them correctly when you need them most. This is important for how we learn but also for how we might help retain healthy brain functions.”

When you’re asleep, the brain organizes your memories. Instead of pulling an all-nighter, study a few hours before bed and review the information in the morning.

No one wants to spend more time studying than they need to. Learning effective study techniques for graduate school can ensure you are fully prepared for your exams and will help curve any looming test anxiety . Hopefully, with the techniques above, you can avoid cramming the night before and make your study time more effective. For more tips on the best ways to study, download the infographic below.

• David L. Chandler, “Better sleep habits lead to better college grades,” Science Daily, October 2019, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191001083956.htm
• “How Our Environment Affects What We Remember,” Neuroscience News, March 10, 2022, https://neurosciencenews.com/environment-memory-20165/
• Keith Rowe, “Top 10 Healthy Snacks for Studying,” brainMD, April 2018, https://brainmd.com/blog/top-10-healthy-snacks-for-studying
• “SQ3R: Survey-Question-Read-Recite-Review,” AdLit, https://www.adlit.org/in-the-classroom/strategies/sq3r-survey-question-read-recite-review
• Retrieval Practice, “What is retrieval practice?”, Retrieval Practice, https://www.retrievalpractice.org/why-it-works
• Xuechen Yuan, “Evidence of the Spacing Effect and Influences on Perceptions of Learning and Science Curricula,” Cureus, 2022;14(1):e21201, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8759977/
• Paul Holt, “Enhancing Your Study Habits with PQ4R,” e-student.org, Sep 22, 2023, https://e-student.org/pq4r-study-method/
• Sahil Bloom, “The Feynman Technique,” Sahil Bloom.com, https://www.sahilbloom.com/newsletter/the-feynman-technique
• Jesse Whelan, “Using the Leitner System to improve your study,” Medium, May 2019, https://jessewhelan.medium.com/using-the-leitner-system-to-improve-your-study-d5edafae7f0
• Meei Tyng Chai, Hafeez Ullah Amin, Lila Iznita Izhar, et al. “Exploring EEG Effective Connectivity Network in Estimating Influence of Color on Emotion and Memory,” Front Neuroinform, October 2019; 13:66, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6794354
• Ting Liu and Takaya Yuizono, “Mind Mapping Training’s Effects on Reading Ability: Detection Based on Eye Tracking Sensors,”  Sensors (Basel), August 2020; (16):4222, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7472315
• Mindmeister, “Collaborative Mind Mapping,” Mindmeister, https://www.mindmeister.com.
• Ross Brakeville, “Health Benefits of Exercise,” WebMD, September 2023, https://www.webmd.com/diet/news/20061103/exercise-fights-fatigue-boosts-energy
• “How Exercise Can Help Boost Your Memory,” Cleveland Clinic, February 19, 2024, https://health.clevelandclinic.org/exercise-to-boost-memory
• MedlinePlus, “Benefits of Exercise,” MedlinePlus, August 2017, https://medlineplus.gov/benefitsofexercise.html
• Ana Sandoiu, “Can you learn in your sleep? Yes, and here’s how,” MedicalNewsToday, March 2018, https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321161

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Mastering the art of essay writing in English

The key components of an essay

Selecting an appropriate topic, conducting thorough research, capturing the reader’s attention, writing a compelling thesis statement, organizing ideas coherently, supporting arguments with evidence, transitioning between paragraphs, ensuring paragraph unity and coherence, summarizing the key points, providing a thought-provoking closing section, reviewing grammar and punctuation, enhancing clarity and style, infusing your personal perspective, using descriptive language, techniques to overcome writing challenges, building a writing routine.

Did you know that over 1.35 billion people worldwide speak English as a first or second language? It’s not just a language but a bridge that connects cultures, ideas, and people. And one of the most crucial skills you can develop as an English learner is the ability to write compelling essays. Whether you’re a student, a professional, or simply someone who wants to communicate effectively, mastering the art of essay writing in English is a skill that can open doors and broaden horizons.

In this comprehensive guide, we’ll walk you through the ins and outs of essay writing in English. We’ll cover everything from the basics of essay structure to crafting captivating introductions, developing strong body paragraphs, creating compelling conclusions, and even polishing your essays through editing. After reading this article, you’ll understand how to write an essay in English that engages readers, presents your ideas clearly, and leaves a lasting impression.

How to write an essay: The basics

An essay is a written composition that presents and supports a particular idea, argument, or point of view. It’s a way to express your thoughts, share information, and persuade others to see things from your perspective. Essays come in various forms, such as argumentative, persuasive, expository, and descriptive, each serving a unique purpose.

An essay is like a journey that takes your reader from one point to another, guided by your words and ideas. To ensure a smooth ride, let’s break down the five key components of an essay:

Introduction

The starting point of your essay, where you introduce the topic and grab the reader’s attention

Thesis statement

A concise statement presenting your main argument or point of view, usually found at the end of the introduction

Body paragraphs

The heart of your essay, where you elaborate on your main points and provide supporting evidence

The closing section where you summarize your key points and restate your thesis while leaving the reader with something to ponder

Preparing for successful essay writing

Before you delve into the world of words and ideas, it’s essential to equip yourself with the right tools and strategies. As a seasoned traveler plans meticulously before a trip, successful essay writing requires careful preparation to ensure a smooth and fulfilling experience. This section explores the foundational steps that lay the groundwork for crafting compelling essays.

Before you embark on your essay-writing journey, choose a topic that interests you and aligns with the purpose of your essay. A well-chosen topic makes the writing process more enjoyable and ensures that your enthusiasm shines through your words.

Brainstorming techniques

Brainstorming is the fuel that ignites creativity. Jot down all the ideas that come to mind related to your chosen topic. Don’t worry about organizing them at this stage; the goal is to generate a pool of potential ideas to work with.

Researching and narrowing down ideas

Once you have a list of ideas, it’s time to research. Look for reliable sources that provide valuable information about your topic. As you gather information, start narrowing down your focus to the most compelling and relevant aspects.

Effective research is the backbone of a well-crafted essay. Utilize online databases, books, academic journals, and reputable websites to gather diverse information. Remember to take detailed notes to make referencing easier later on.

Reliable sources and references

Credibility matters in essay writing. Use sources that are trustworthy and well regarded within the academic community. When incorporating information from these sources, provide proper citations and references to avoid plagiarism.

Note-taking strategies

Develop a system for note-taking that works for you. Whether you prefer handwritten notes, digital documents, or both, ensure that your notes are organized, clear, and easily accessible when writing.

Crafting an engaging introduction

They say that first impressions are everything, and this sentiment holds especially true in the case of essay writing. An engaging introduction lays the foundation for an exceptional essay. Your introduction is the gateway that beckons readers into the world you’ve created with your words, urging them to explore further. In this section, we’ll see how to create introductions that grab attention, spark curiosity, and smoothly lead into your essay.

Think of your introduction as a gateway to your essay . Engage your reader with a captivating opening sentence that sparks curiosity and makes them want to read further.

For example, suppose we were to write an essay on Mary Jackson, the first Black woman to work at NASA. We could introduce it like this:

«Imagine a time when reaching for the stars meant defying more than just gravity. Mary Jackson, a brilliant mathematician and engineer, did just that. In a world where opportunities for Black women were limited, she became the first to break barriers at NASA.»

Anecdotes or quotes

Anecdotes and quotes are potent tools to humanize your essay and connect with your audience. Share a relevant personal story or a thought-provoking quote that ties into your topic.

Presenting a thought-provoking question

Posing a question in your introduction can stimulate your reader’s curiosity and encourage them to explore your essay in search of answers. Do you remember how we started this article? 😉

At the core of every well-constructed essay lies a guiding light – a thesis statement that illuminates the path your arguments will tread. Your thesis statement is the linchpin that holds your essay together, providing direction and purpose to every word you write.

Let’s continue with our essay example on Mary Jackson. Our thesis statement could look like this:

«This essay delves into the life of Mary Jackson, showcasing her pioneering spirit, determination, and lasting impact on science and society. As we explore her journey, you’ll see how her legacy continues to inspire generations, proving that even in the face of adversity, dreams can soar higher than the sky.»

Clarity and specificity

Your thesis statement is the compass that guides your essay. Make it clear, concise, and specific so that your reader knows what to expect.

Signposting the essay’s main points

Give your reader a road map of what lies ahead in your essay. Briefly outline the main points you’ll be covering in the body paragraphs.

«In the upcoming sections, this essay will trace the remarkable journey of Mary Jackson. She earned her place in history as the first Black woman to join NASA. We will unfold each phase of her life story, shedding light on her early years, educational achievements, significant contributions at NASA, unwavering commitment to diversity, enduring legacy, and resonance in today’s world.»

Developing strong body paragraphs

If the introduction of your essay is the grand entrance, then the body paragraphs are the chambers where your ideas come to life , flourish, and weave a compelling narrative. A skilled writer crafts body paragraphs that build upon one another to shape a coherent and persuasive argument. In this section, we’ll uncover the art of developing strong body paragraphs that are organized and informative and seamlessly flow from one another.

Each body paragraph should focus on a single main idea or argument. Organize your paragraphs in a logical sequence so that they always build upon the previous one.

Utilizing topic sentences

Start each body paragraph with a clear and concise topic sentence that previews the paragraph’s main point.

Logical flow of information

Ensure that your ideas flow smoothly from one paragraph to the next. Use transitional words and phrases to guide your reader through your essay effortlessly.

Support your claims with evidence, such as statistics, facts, examples, and expert opinions. This adds credibility and persuasiveness to your arguments.

Incorporating quotations and examples

Quotations and examples breathe life into your essay, providing real-world context for your ideas. Make sure to integrate them seamlessly and provide proper citations.

Proper citation and referencing

Avoid plagiarism by properly citing the sources of your information. Use a consistent citation style , such as the American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association (MLA), or Chicago, and create a bibliography or “works cited” page.

Mastering essay structure and coherence

A compelling essay’s beauty lies in the depth of its content and the seamless flow of its ideas . In this section, we’ll explain how to understand better and use essay structure and coherence. We’ll talk about methods that turn paragraphs into a well-organized and exciting piece of writing.

Smooth transitions between paragraphs enhance the flow of your essay. Use transitional phrases to bridge ideas and create a seamless reading experience.

Using transitional words and phrases

Transitional words, such as “however,” “in addition,” and “on the other hand,” help connect ideas and show the relationship between different parts of your essay.

Maintaining the essay’s flow

Review your essay to ensure that the ideas progress logically and coherently. If a paragraph feels out of place, reorder or revise it.

Each paragraph should have a clear focus and relate directly to the main argument. Avoid going off on tangents that don’t contribute to your essay’s central theme.

Consistency in tense and voice

Maintain a consistent use of verb tenses and writing voice throughout your essay. Mixing past and present tense can confuse your reader.

Avoiding repetition and redundancy

Be mindful of repeating the same ideas or using redundant phrases. This not only adds unnecessary length but also dilutes the impact of your arguments.

Creating a compelling conclusion

The conclusion of an essay is not merely a summary but a reflection that echoes the essence of your arguments and ties them into a satisfying whole . In this section, we’ll explore the art of creating a compelling conclusion that reiterates your main points and offers a fresh perspective, a thought-provoking insight, or a call to action.

In your conclusion, briefly summarize the main points you’ve covered in your essay. Remind your reader of the journey you’ve taken them on.

Reiterating the thesis statement

Revisit your thesis statement, reinforcing the main argument you’ve presented throughout the essay.

Briefly summarizing the main arguments

Highlight the key arguments and evidence you’ve provided in the body paragraphs, emphasizing their significance.

Leave your reader with a final thought, question, or idea that encourages them to reflect on your essay’s topic and implications.

Implications or future considerations

If appropriate, discuss the broader implications of your essay’s topic or suggest areas for future research and exploration.

Leaving a lasting impression on the reader

End your essay with impact. Craft a conclusion that resonates with your reader, leaving them thinking about your words long after finishing your essay.

Returning to the essay example on Mary Jackson, here is a simple but impactful closing section:

«Mary Jackson’s journey is a powerful example of overcoming challenges. From her early interest in science to her important role at NASA, her legacy inspires diversity and progress. By exploring her achievements, we see that learning and fairness can create lasting change.

Mary Jackson’s story encourages us to face obstacles with determination. Reflecting on her journey, we’re prompted to think about how her influence urges us to value diversity and drive positive life changes.»

Polishing your essay: The editing process

In the editing process, your essay transforms from a rough draft into a polished gem ready to shine. In this section, we’ll delve into the nuances of the editing process , exploring techniques to review the grammar, punctuation, style, and clarity of your essay. From proofreading techniques to harnessing grammar-checking tools, we’ll see the steps to enhance your essay’s precision and eloquence.

Before submitting your essay, thoroughly review it for grammatical errors, punctuation mistakes, and spelling issues.

Proofreading techniques

Read your essay slowly and carefully, paying attention to each word and punctuation mark. This helps you catch typos and minor errors.

Utilizing grammar-checking tools

Use grammar-checking tools and software to catch any mistakes you have missed. However, don’t rely solely on these tools, as they may not detect all errors.

Ensure your sentences are clear and concise. Avoid overly complex language or jargon that might confuse your reader.

Sentence structure and variety

Vary the structures of your sentences to keep your writing engaging. Combine short and long sentences to create rhythm and flow.

Removing unnecessary jargon

Simplify your language and avoid unnecessary jargon, especially if your essay is intended for a general audience.

Showcasing your unique voice

In a world saturated with words, your voice is the signature that distinguishes your essay from the rest . Every writer possesses a unique voice that infuses personality and authenticity into their work. From striking a balance between objectivity and subjectivity to coloring your essay with personal insights, you’ll discover how to create a composition that echoes your individuality. As you embark on the quest to find and amplify your voice, remember that your words carry the imprint of your identity, enriching your essay with depth and resonance.

Feel free to share your insights and experiences if they are relevant to your topic. This can make your essay more relatable.

Balancing objectivity and subjectivity

While essays often express the author’s point of view, strive for a balanced approach that fairly presents both sides of an argument.

Expressing individual insights

Provide a thoughtful analysis and interpretation of the information you’ve presented. Your insights demonstrate your engagement with the topic.

Incorporate descriptive language to paint a vivid picture for your reader. Use sensory details to make your essay come to life.

Evoking imagery and sensory details

Engage your reader’s senses and invoke their imagination by describing sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures. This helps them immerse themselves in your essay.

Overcoming writer’s block

Writer’s block – the unwelcome companion that often lurks on the path to creativity – is a challenge familiar to every writer . From freewriting to cultivating a writing routine, there are several strategies to break through barriers and reignite your creative spark. Remember, even the most accomplished writers experience moments of resistance; what sets them apart is their ability to overcome it.

Writer’s block can strike at any time. Experiment with different techniques, such as freewriting and mind mapping, to break through creative barriers.

Freewriting and mind mapping

Engage in freewriting – set a timer and write whatever comes to mind without worrying about grammar or structure. Alternatively, use mind maps to organize your ideas visually .

Taking breaks and seeking inspiration

Step away from your writing and do something else when you’re stuck. A change of scenery or a brisk walk can help refresh your mind.

Establishing a consistent writing routine can help you stay motivated and make steady progress on your essays.

Setting goals and deadlines

Set achievable goals and deadlines for each step of the writing process. This keeps you accountable and prevents procrastination.

Finding your optimal writing environment

Identify the environment where you feel most productive and creative. It could be a quiet corner, a bustling café, or a peaceful park.

In this journey through the art of essay writing in English, you’ve learned how to craft an essay that captivates, informs, and persuades. From selecting a topic to preparing a compelling conclusion, every step contributes to the overall quality of your essay.

Essay writing is not just a skill; it’s a powerful tool that can shape opinions, influence decisions, and connect people across cultures and time zones.

As you embark on your essay-writing pursuits, consider seeking guidance from Preply tutors who specialize in various areas of English , including academic writing. With their expertise, you can refine your skills, receive personalized feedback, and master the art of essay writing in English. Prepare, research, and let your words pave the way for impactful communication and meaningful expression.

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Alice is a web content writer and technical translator who is specializing in inclusive language. She is Italian but has been living in Barcelona, Spain, since 2012. Her work as a web writer results from many enriching experiences and collaborations with people and communities from very different international backgrounds. In addition to Italian, she speaks Spanish, English, French, and a little Catalan... and dreams of learning Portuguese. You can connect with her on LinkedIn or, if you speak Italian, have a look at her professional blog.

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Exam Tips: How to write a research methods essay

Travis Dixon March 17, 2019 Research Methodology , Revision and Exam Preparation

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Updated Feb 2021

One of the most difficult of the five types of exam questions to write about in IB Psychology is research methods. Like most other essay questions, students tend to focus on studies and miss other important aspects of the essay. In this post, I offer my best tips for how to write an excellent essay on research methods.

What-How-Why

Our unit on Quantitative Methods is designed to help students answer these challenging questions.

These three simple questions are an excellent guideline for most of the IB Psych’ course. Research methods essays are no different. You want to show you:

• Know what the research methods are
• Understand  how  and  why they’re used

The following helps you figure out how to address these key questions. However, the structure and content of your answer will depend on the specific question you’re answering and the materials you’ve used in your course.

• Exam tips for writing about research methods and ethics
• Biological Research Methods Example Essay (ERQ)
• How to explain the use of a research method

Step 1: What?

The first thing to get right is the definition . It’s really important to have a clear, precise and accurate definition of the research method/s you’re writing about. This could be either in the introduction or in the first body paragraph of the essay (i.e. the central argument). After defining the method, the explanation of how and why should begin.

Step 2: How?

Every essay answer should have a central argument that shows knowledge and understanding of the topic in the question (watch this video for more essay advice). In the case of research methods questions, the central argument should be an explanation of how and why the particular method is used in that particular topic . This is a key part of the answer that many students miss.

For example, if you’re explaining the use of a true experiment the “how” would include the nature of the independent variables and perhaps common ways the dependent variable is measured. For instance, in true experiments on the brain the IV is commonly a factor hypothesized to affect brain activity like chemical messengers such as serotonin and the effects of the manipulation of this IV on the brain is measured using fMRI.

Tip:  A detailed central argument explaining how and why the method is used is the key to scoring top marks in the “knowledge and understanding” section of the essay rubric. Your explanation of the method would be identical in an SAQ and an essay.

Step 3: Why?

This is straightforward – give reasons why this method is useful. Weak answers will be generic, such as “true experiments are helpful because they can establish causal relationships.” Stronger answers will focus on specific details of the field of psychology in question. For instance, an essay on true experiments might focus on animal experimentation and the benefits of manipulating brain activity in rodents and animals in ways that couldn’t be done in humans but provide valuable additional information alongside human quasi experiments and correlational studies.

Scroll on for more exam tips.

DOWNLOAD Example Research Methods Essay

Common Error: What is a “method”?

One of the biggest mistakes a student can make in a research method essay is writing about a method that actually isn’t a “ research method .” For example, if a student wrote about animal studies, twin studies, or brain imaging technology as a research method they would score very low marks because these are not research methods (according to the IB).

To quote the official IB FAQs document, “…the different research methods for the study of psychology at this level: case studies, naturalistic observations, interviews, experiments, field experiments, quasi-experiments, natural experiments, correlations studies.” Therefore, make sure the method/s you are writing about is from this list.

Tip:  Prepare to write about true experiments and/or correlational studies for Paper 1 and 2. These are used in every topic and it simplifies the preparation for this tricky question. Our IB Psychology Revision Textbook follows this approach.

Research Methods from the IB Guide

This screen shot of the online IB Psychology guide shows the list of “research methods” that you have to choose from.

Link to the topic!

A common weakness in research methods essays is they do not fully address the question by explaining the use of the method in relation to the approach or the topic in the question. A good way to check if the answer has applied the explanation to the topic is to read the explanation and see if it could also be true of any topic in IB Psychology. If it’s generic enough so it could be used across multiple topics, then the application needs to be clearer. Another even easier way to check is to see if the topic or approach is even mentioned at all in the explanation!

Explain studies, don’t just describe them!

Examiner’s reports always complain that “there’s too much description in essays”. This is actually the wrong complaint. A lot of description is great, but  it needs to be matched with explanation . So the real critique should be “there’s not enough explanation in essays.”

So how do you go beyond describing so you’re explaining a study? The key is in the final 1-3 sentences after the results when you make it clear what the results show about the question, i.e. what conclusions are we drawing from those results?

In research methods essays, however, it’s a little different. Many students make the mistake of explaining what the results show about behaviour , whereas in research methods essays you need to explain how the study shows the use of the method . For example, if using a study that’s a true experiment you explain how the manipulation of the IV in a controlled environment enabled causal conclusions to be drawn, or why it was useful in a correlational study to show the strength of a relationship between the two variables in the study, etc.

Remember : In ThemEd’s three levels of learning, describing means to summarize individual things and explaining means to show how they’re related. In this type of essay, this means explaining how the procedures of a research method are applied in a particular topic (see the example essay for a demonstration of this being done).

Evaluate the method, not the studies

To show critical thinking in a research methods essay, it’s important you can explain strengths and limitations of the research method you are writing about. So when you’re evaluating the studies, it’s not a good idea to explain the limitations of the study (e.g. lacking generalizability) without focusing on how the methods are limited in some way.

For example, if I was writing about Loftus and Palmer’s car crash study to show the use of a true experiment to study cognitive processes, it would not be that relevant to the question to explain a limitation of the study based on the characteristics of the participants (e.g. they had limited driving experience) because this isn’t really linked to the true experimental method. A far better evaluative point to make is to explain that maybe these results in a controlled environment might not be reflective of what happens in real life, possibly due to the fact that in this scenario there were no consequences for a wrong answer and the level of emotion is much lower than when witnessing real crimes. These are better points to make because they are focused on a key aspect of the true experiment – the controlled environment.

When explaining limitations of correlational studies, don’t just say “correlational doesn’t mean causation” but actually provide examples. For example, how could the relationship work in both directions, or what are some other factors that might explain the relationship? For example, if I was critiquing the use of correlational studies to study personal relationships, I might say that correlational studies (e.g. Gottman and Levenson) that show a correlational between marital satisfaction and communication could be explained in either direction (what we call bidirectional ambiguity): it could be that poor communication is leading to decreased marital satisfaction (being unhappy in a marriage), or that being unhappy in the marriage is causing more poor communication.

Tip:  Go beyond one sentence explanations of limitations like “ecological validity.” This post explains exactly how to explain limitations of ecological in detail.

Often a third variable can explain the connection between two variables in a correlational study, like in this example of crime and ice-cream. Explaining possible links like this is an excellent way of highlighting the limitations in correlational studies.

Study one method in depth

My advice to students is to prep true experiments and correlational studies, but for every topic they should choose one of these to prep in depth. This is because there is a good chance you might be asked to write an essay about just one method. For example, if the question was “Evaluate the use of one method to study emotion and cognition.” If you revised two or more methods for this topic, then that would have been a wasted effort. By preparing to write about one in-depth (and perhaps having a second with just one study as an example), you are best-prepared to write an excellent essay.

This post about why depth is better than breadth in IB Psychology might help clarify this point.

Tip:  Use one method to critique the other. This is another reason why I like true experiments and correlational studies – their strengths and limitations can be used to evaluate one-anothers.

Discuss vs evaluate – what’s the difference?

There is none. While some teachers will argue that these command terms require different content, I argue (and can demonstrate) that this is simply not the case, especially when it comes to research methods. You can read more about this on this blog post. 

One method or two?

A common question is “do quasi and true experiments count as one method or two?” The truth is no-one yet knows how the IB is going to mark this in the exams. It appears from the IB materials that they are considered two (see quote and image above). However, this is another reason why prepping correlational studies and true experiments is a good idea because they are clearly two separate methods.

Example Essay

You can read an example essay that (I hope) follows the advice given in this blog pots. This essay has been taken from the resources in the  Quantitative Methods Teacher Support Pack.   Even if you’re not teaching using our textbooks, this TSP would still be useful.

Note to students: This has been submitted to turnitin and will be known by your teachers, so it would be very unwise to try to submit this as your own work.

Example Questions

You might be asked about research methods in relation to any of the  topics   in the IB Psychology curriculum. For example, you might be asked to evaluate the use of one research method used in the study of the brain and behaviour. However, you would not be asked to discuss the method used to study neuroplasticity, since this is a sub-content point related to the broader topic. It’s possible that the question might be linked to the approach as well.

Remember that essay questions will be either discuss, evaluate, to what extent or contrast. It is unlikely that the “to what extent” command term will be used for a research methods essay (but not impossible) and it’s also unlikely that “contrast” will be used as well because it is more likely you’ll be asked to write about “one or more” methods. So here are some example essay questions:

• Evaluate the use of one research method used to study cognitive processes. 
• Discuss how and why one research method is used to study cultural origins of behaviour. 
• Discuss the use of one or more research methods used to study genes and behaviour.
• Evaluate the use of one or more research methods used in the biological approach to understanding human behaviour.
• Evaluate the use of one or more research methods used to study etiologies of psychological disorders. 
• Discuss the use of one research method used to study personal relationships. 

Check the IB Guide or your textbooks for a list of the topics in the course.

Good luck and I hope this post was helpful. Remember to check out our store to find the latest revision materials and resources.

Was this helpful? Feel free to leave questions and comments.

Travis Dixon is an IB Psychology teacher, author, workshop leader, examiner and IA moderator.

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Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

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Table of Contents

What is the point-by-point method and block method, what does a comparative essay do, how to use the point-by-point comparison method, how to use the compare and contrast block method, lesson summary, how do you write a point by point comparison essay.

A point-by-point comparison essay begins with an introductory paragraph. Both subjects are then discussed simultaneously, with key points being addressed at the same time. The essay ends with a final concluding paragraph.

Which is an example of point by point organization in a comparative essay?

An example of a point-by-point comparative essay would be comparing two cars being considered for purchase. The cost of both vehicles would be discussed before then moving on to the performance of each car, and the paper might end with discussing the required maintenance and potential expenses of each car.

What is the point by point method of organization?

The point-by-point method of organization involves writing about both subjects of comparison at the same time. Both subjects will be discussed for each point of comparison and contrast.

What is the block method compare and contrast?

The block method of compare and contrast involves writing first about one subject before transitioning to write about the second subject. Points of comparison are the same.

How do you write a compare and contrast essay block?

A compare and contrast essay in the block format involves writing first about one subject, addressing all of the points of comparison and contrast. The the paper transitions to write about the second subject, again addressing all of the same key points.

A compare and contrast essay , also called a comparison or comparative essay , is used to explain the similarities and differences between two subjects. These types of essays usually use specific structures or formats for presenting information, the most common of which are the point-by-point method and the block method .

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• 0:03 Comparing and Contrasting
• 1:13 Block Method
• 3:23 Point-By-Point Method
• 5:20 Lesson Summary

A comparative essay is used to discuss points of comparison and contrast between two aspects of a topic. Both aspects are presented equally, meaning that an equal amount of information and space in the essay is given to each one.

Regardless of which method is used, a comparative essay will begin with an introductory paragraph that establishes the topic of the essay and introduces the two subjects being compared. It should also touch on the points that will be covered in the essay. Comparative essays should also end with a concluding paragraph in which the key points are briefly summarized and the overall message of the essay - the thesis - is stated or reiterated.

A thesis statement is usually a single sentence that asserts the ultimate point of the essay. In a compare and contrast essay, the thesis can either be the last sentence of the introductory paragraph or it can appear in the concluding paragraph at the end of the paper. How and where the thesis is presented in the essay will depend on the contents and purpose of the essay. For example, a comparative essay might be used to help determine the best pet for a family, and an assertion will ultimately be made as to which pet is the best. In this example, the thesis statement may be presented in the concluding paragraph as a means of wrapping up all of the points that were discussed and making an ultimate determination about the topic. However, the thesis statement can also be presented in the introduction of the essay, serving as an assertion by the author that will then be explained and supported in the rest of the essay.

There is no set rule as to which placement is better for the thesis. Generally speaking, if the essay is serving as an exploratory essay, the eventual decision would logically be presented at the end of the paper. If, on the other hand, the essay is meant to be more persuasive, trying to convince the reader to agree with the author's point of view on the topic, the thesis might be presented in the introduction with the comparison and contrast in the paper serving to support the author's argument.

A point-by-point comparison essay discusses two subjects using the same set of criteria. The criteria are applied to each subject, one point at a time. In this way, the point-by-point method can seem a bit like a list. The point-by-point method is typically better for longer essays, those of more than four pages, because both subjects are being discussed within each point throughout the essay, keeping both subjects fresh in the reader's mind and making it easier for the reader to follow each point of comparison and contrast.

The block method, as discussed later in this lesson, addresses one subjects at a time, and in a longer paper, the first subject presented may fade a bit in the reader's mind by the end of the essay if the essay is too long.

Example of a Point-by-Point Essay

The point-by-point organization will begin with an introductory paragraph that establishes the topic of the essay and the subjects that will be compared. The body of the essay will focus on comparing and contrasting the two subjects. In a point-by-point comparative essay about pet ownership and whether a cat or a dog is the best pet for a family, the criteria for comparison might include:

• Costs of owning the pet
• Needs and requirements of the pet
• Time commitment involved in owning the pet
• Family engagement and interaction

The essay might begin by comparing how much it costs to obtain both a cat and a dog, followed by the cost of food and supplies required for each pet. Then the author will move on to discuss the needs and requirements of each animal, such as toys and treats and veterinary care. In the next section of the essay, the author will discuss the time commitment for owning and caring for each type of pet, perhaps pointing out that dogs require daily walks and exercise while cats can often be left alone for much longer periods of time. Finally, in the last section, the author will consider how the different pets interact with their owners, perhaps explaining how dogs tend to be more playful and want to spend more time with their owners while cats tend to be more solitary.

The block method of compare and contrast presents all of the information about one subject before moving on to present all of the information about the other subject. Both subjects are still given equal attention in the essay, but the focus stays first on one and then moves on to the other. This helps to avoid the list-like feel of the point-by-point method, which can get a bit monotonous. It also allows the author to present the full picture for one subject before moving on to the next. However, this method tends to work better for shorter essays so that the information presented about the first subject does not fade into the background by the time the information for the second subject is finished.

Like the point-by-point essay, the block method essay will still begin with an introductory paragraph and will end with a concluding paragraph. However, the block method also requires the use of a transition paragraph , which helps move the essay from the first subject to the second subject.

Example of a Block Essay

A compare and contrast block method essay will begin with an introductory paragraph, the same as that used in the point-by-point method. The topic will be introduced, along with both subjects being compared and the key points of comparison. The essay would then begin by focusing wholly on one of the subjects. Using the same example of analyzing the best pet for a family, the block method would present all of the information about owning a dog (for example), followed by all of the information for owing a cat. The same key points of comparison could be used. It is just the organization of the paper that is different.

A compare and contrast essay , also known as a comparison or comparative essay , is one in which two subjects are compared and contrasted according to a certain set of criteria. There are two main formats for a comparative essay: the point-by-point method and the block method . Both types of essays include an introductory paragraph , a concluding paragraph , and a thesis statement , or the one-sentence argument of the essay.

The point-by-point method of comparison is organized by the criteria or key points of comparison, discussing each subject within each of these points. Because of this structure, the point-by-point method can seem a bit list-like and is often better for longer papers. The block method of comparison focuses first on one subject, addressing all of the key criteria about that subject before changing to the second subject and applying the same criteria to that subject. Because of this structure, the block method also includes a transition paragraph that moves the reader from the first subject to the second subject in the essay. This method is better for shorter papers so that readers don't lose sight of the information about the first subject by the time they finish reading about the second subject.

Video Transcript

Comparing and contrasting.

Do you remember that story from school that we learned about Benjamin Franklin? Whenever he had a problem that he wasn't sure how to resolve, he would draw a vertical line down a sheet of paper. He would then proceed to write the pros or positives to the left of the line, and the cons or negatives to the right of the line. He not only considered how many items were on each side of the line, but also how important each item was to the situation. From there he would draw conclusions, and ultimately make a final decision. His decisions were extremely important and affected many people.

In a similar vein, comparison essays are an effective way of showing both the differences and the similarities between two items. In fact, they're sometimes referred to as compare and contrast essays. The two major methods of writing these essays are the block method and the point-by-point method. The latter is sometimes called the feature-by-feature method.

How do you decide which method to choose? Well, each method has its own distinct advantages and disadvantages. In fact, if you think about it, this lesson will be a type of comparison essay in and of itself. Can you figure out which method this lesson employs?

Block Method

The block method is often utilized for shorter assignments, essays, and papers. In this methodology, all the pertinent information about Point A (for example, ballroom dancing) is written about in the first half of the paper. All the pertinent information about Point B (for example, line dancing) is written about in the second half of the paper. The finished product often sounds more like a summary than an essay, as it's not usually as clearly organized as the point-by-point method.

This method works well for papers of one, two, or three pages in length. Beyond that, it is quite difficult for the reader to remember all of the information from Point A when moving on to Point B. Further, it is then difficult for the reader to remember what was read in Point A when finishing with Point B. However, it does concisely present the two sides and the whole picture. It also avoids some of the monotonous undertones prevalent in the other method.

For example, here is how to present an essay comparing and contrasting ballroom dancing and line dancing, using the block method:

First, we have the introduction…

Followed by the first half of essay…

In this first half, we write information pertinent to Point A, in this case, ballroom dancing. So, we might write something like:

Ballroom dancing involves many types of dances including the foxtrot, tango, and waltz. The dances involve two partners. They are often danced to classical music.

After we finished writing about Point A, we would include a transition section…

In the second half of essay, we would address Point B. We might says something like:

Line dancing involves many types of dances, including the hustle, the Macarena, and the stroll. The dances involve many people together at once. They are often danced to country and western music.

When we've finished addressing our Point B topic, we need to add a conclusion...

The transition is the one obvious distinction between the two methods. In the block method, there is a stark contrast between the first half of the essay and the second half of the essay. They speak about two entirely different concepts. Therefore, it's desirable to put a transition in between the two halves to allow for a smoother flow of words and ideas.

Point-by-Point Method

The point-by-point method is often utilized for longer assignments, essays, and papers. In this methodology a pertinent fact about Point A (ballroom dancing) is written, immediately followed by a pertinent fact about Point B (line dancing). Then a second fact about Point A is written, followed by a second fact about Point B, and so forth. The finished product can lack an appearance of unity, and seem more like a list.

This method works well for papers of four or more pages in length. Below that, it can take on the semblance of simplicity.

In this second example, we look at a way to compare and contrast ballroom dancing and line dancing using the point-by-point method:

Followed by the first paragraph, listing one fact about Point A and one about Point B. So, our first paragraph might be:

Ballroom dancing involves many types of dances, including the foxtrot, tango, and the waltz. Line dancing involves many types of dances, including the hustle, the Macarena, and the stroll. In ballroom dancing, the dances involve two partners. In line dancing, the dances involve many people together at once. Ballroom dances are often performed to classical music. Line dances are often performed to country music.

We would follow in the fashion for the rest of the essay, including one fact specific to each point until we've completed our essay.

The last part of a point-by-point essay is the conclusion...

Do you see why the point-by-point method requires no transition paragraph? The author merely continues after the introduction with paragraphs that list one fact about Point A and then one fact about Point B. Therefore, in a way, transitions are being made throughout the entire essay.

By the way, did you figure out that this lesson utilized the block method? This was effective partly because the lesson was not too long. This lesson even had its own transition paragraph, and it was about transitions.

Comparison essays are also known as compare and contrast essays. They show the differences and similarities between two different items. The two major ways of writing these essays are the block method and the point-by-point method. The latter is sometimes called the feature-by-feature method. Each methodology has its own unique advantages and disadvantages.

The block method is used for essays of one to three pages in length. The first half of the paper discusses Point A, and the second half discusses Point B. It is concise in its presentation of the whole picture and avoids monotony. However, it doesn't work for longer essays, and it can often sound like a summary instead of an essay.

The point-by-point method is often utilized for longer assignment, essays, and papers. Essays using the point-by-point method can seem more like lists than essays and lack unity. However, they don't need a transition paragraph like block method essays. Finally, it's important that both methods contain introductions and conclusions.

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis.

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

Related Articles

Research Methodology

Metasynthesis Of Qualitative Research

Grounded Theory In Qualitative Research: A Practical Guide

Qualitative Data Coding

What Is a Focus Group?

Cross-Cultural Research Methodology In Psychology

What Is Internal Validity In Research?

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Test-Negative Study Designs for Evaluating Vaccine Effectiveness

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The evaluation of vaccines continues long after initial regulatory approval. Postapproval observational studies are often used to investigate aspects of vaccine effectiveness (VE) that clinical trials cannot feasibly assess. These includes long-term effectiveness, effectiveness within subgroups, effectiveness against rare outcomes, and effectiveness as the circulating pathogen changes. 1 Policymakers rely on these data to guide vaccine recommendations or formulation updates. 2

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Article Contents

Introduction, acknowledgements, supplementary data, declarations, xylitol is prothrombotic and associated with cardiovascular risk.

• Article contents
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Marco Witkowski, Ina Nemet, Xinmin S Li, Jennifer Wilcox, Marc Ferrell, Hassan Alamri, Nilaksh Gupta, Zeneng Wang, Wai Hong Wilson Tang, Stanley L Hazen, Xylitol is prothrombotic and associated with cardiovascular risk, European Heart Journal , 2024;, ehae244, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae244

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The pathways and metabolites that contribute to residual cardiovascular disease risks are unclear. Low-calorie sweeteners are widely used sugar substitutes in processed foods with presumed health benefits. Many low-calorie sweeteners are sugar alcohols that also are produced endogenously, albeit at levels over 1000-fold lower than observed following consumption as a sugar substitute.

Untargeted metabolomics studies were performed on overnight fasting plasma samples in a discovery cohort ( n = 1157) of sequential stable subjects undergoing elective diagnostic cardiac evaluations; subsequent stable isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analyses were performed on an independent, non-overlapping validation cohort ( n = 2149). Complementary isolated human platelet, platelet-rich plasma, whole blood, and animal model studies examined the effect of xylitol on platelet responsiveness and thrombus formation in vivo . Finally, an intervention study was performed to assess the effects of xylitol consumption on platelet function in healthy volunteers ( n = 10).

In initial untargeted metabolomics studies (discovery cohort), circulating levels of a polyol tentatively assigned as xylitol were associated with incident (3-year) major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE) risk. Subsequent stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS analyses (validation cohort) specific for xylitol (and not its structural isomers) confirmed its association with incident MACE risk [third vs. first tertile adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval), 1.57 (1.12–2.21), P < .01]. Complementary mechanistic studies showed xylitol-enhanced multiple indices of platelet reactivity and in vivo thrombosis formation at levels observed in fasting plasma. In interventional studies, consumption of a xylitol-sweetened drink markedly raised plasma levels and enhanced multiple functional measures of platelet responsiveness in all subjects.

Xylitol is associated with incident MACE risk. Moreover, xylitol both enhanced platelet reactivity and thrombosis potential in vivo . Further studies examining the cardiovascular safety of xylitol are warranted.

Role of the artificial sweetener xylitol in cardiovascular event risk. In initial untargeted metabolomics studies (discovery cohort) and subsequent stable isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) studies (validation cohort), fasting levels of xylitol are associated with incident major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Using human whole blood, platelet-rich plasma, and washed platelets, xylitol enhances multiple indices of platelet reactivity in vitro . Xylitol also was shown to enhance thrombosis formation in a murine arterial injury model in vivo . In human intervention studies, when subjects ingested a typical dietary amount of xylitol in an artificially sweetened food, multiple functional measures of platelet responsiveness were significantly increased. Xylitol is both clinically associated with cardiovascular event risks and mechanistically linked to enhanced platelet responsiveness and thrombosis potential in vivo . ADP, adenosine diphosphate; MI, myocardial infarction.

See the editorial comment for this article ‘Xylitol: bitter cardiovascular data for a successful sweetener’, by J.H. Beer and M. Allemann, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehae252 .

Plasma levels of xylitol, both an endogenous metabolite in glucose metabolism and a commonly used low-calorie sweetener, are associated with incident thrombotic event risks in observational cohort studies and mechanistically linked with heightened thrombosis potential in vitro and in animal studies. In a human invention study, consumption of a typical portion size of a xylitol-sweetened drink significantly enhanced multiple indices of platelet responsiveness in healthy volunteers. Thus, xylitol is both clinically associated with and mechanistically linked to heightened atherothrombotic and cardiovascular disease risks. Long-term safety studies and reappraisal of labelling mandates for the sugar alcohol xylitol are warranted.

In light of the obesity pandemic worldwide, 1 measures to reduce sugar intake have become a public health priority. 2 One such measure is the proliferation of artificial sweeteners including non-nutritive and low-calorie sweeteners (which collectively are also often called ‘artificial sweeteners’) in processed foods that are promoted as healthy sugar alternatives. While artificial sweeteners have generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status and are approved by public health authorities [e.g. US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 3 and European Union (EU) 4 ], the World Health Organization recently advised against the use of non-sugar sweeteners for weight control in newly released guidelines. 5 Over the past decade, the use of artificial sweeteners has markedly increased in near-universal fashion across all subject categories including gender, age, race/ethnicity, weight status, and geographic and socio-economic subgroups. 6 Of note, the use of artificial sweeteners is recommended for subjects that suffer from cardiometabolic diseases including obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD) by multiple guideline organizations (e.g. American Heart Association and diabetes associations in the USA, UK, Canada, and Australia), 7–11 while their potential long-term cardiovascular adverse effects are rarely studied. 12

Contrary to their intended benefits, a history of artificial sweeteners in a number of epidemiological studies has been associated with cardiometabolic adverse effects including insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and CVD, including atherothrombotic complications and death. 13–18 Moreover, in recent studies, the endogenous sugar alcohol erythritol was both clinically and mechanistically linked to CVD. 19 Only a limited number of randomized controlled trials have examined the short-term effects of sweeteners on metabolic indices with results that generally fail to support the promoted benefits, 20–23 though some studies have suggested potential metabolic improvements. 24 , 25 The limited randomized controlled trials available on artificial sweeteners have been criticized for not reflecting real-life exposure 26 and for typically being conducted over a short period of time, making them unable to recapitulate long-term exposures appropriately for CVD endpoints.

Xylitol is a 5-carbon sugar alcohol (polyol) that is commonly used as a low-calorie sweetener. It can be found in small quantities in fruits and vegetables 27 but is highly enriched (often over 1000-fold higher than found in nature) in numerous artificially sweetened foods and beverages. Because of its anti-cariogenic properties, 28 xylitol is also commonly used in candy, gum, and oral care products. 29 Xylitol is also produced endogenously as a low abundance intermediate side product of human glucose metabolism (part of the glucuronate pathway) and has negligible impact on blood sugar or insulin secretion. 30 , 31 In contrast to traditional high-intensity sweeteners, xylitol has comparable sweetness to sucrose. 29 Thus, when used as a sugar substitute, it is added in much larger amounts to processed food (i.e. levels equal to sucrose with up to 45 g per serving in some products such as artificially sweetened pie fillings). 32 It is therefore appreciated by the food industry as a bulking sugar substitute that confers texture, moisture, and increases shelf life of processed foods without aftertaste. 33 Consequently, xylitol is sold in grocery stores in bulk (like sugar) where its 1:1 replacement is suggested. It is marketed as a ‘natural sweetener’, ‘keto-friendly’, or ‘low-carb’ and is generally recommended as a sugar substitute for patients with diabetes to improve glycaemic control. 34 Despite the growing market share and use of xylitol in processed foods and oral care products, the impact of xylitol on cardiovascular event risk has not been reported. Here, we provide human clinical observational, interventional, and mechanistic studies linking xylitol to CVD event risk and both heightened platelet reactivity and a pro-thrombotic state in vivo .

More extensive details for all methods can be found in Supplementary data online , Methods .

Human subjects

Study approvals.

We performed three distinct clinical studies with non-overlapping subjects. All human subjects provided written informed consent, and all human studies abided by the Declaration of Helsinki. The Institutional Review Board of the Cleveland Clinic approved all human study protocols [GeneBank IRB 4265; IRB 21-005 (xylitol ingestion related studies), healthy volunteer blood donors for platelet-related studies IRB 09-506]. Detailed information about the clinical observational cohorts (discovery cohort and validation cohorts) and the xylitol intervention cohort can be found in Supplementary data online , Methods .

Mice were used to causally test whether elevation in xylitol plasma levels results in enhancement in thrombosis potential. All mice were C57BL/6J and 12–14 weeks of age. All animal studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the Cleveland Clinic (IRB 2019-2251).

Aggregometry studies in platelet-rich plasma

Aggregometry in platelet-rich plasma (PRP) was performed as previously described. 35

Intracellular calcium measurements

Measurement of intracellular calcium release in washed platelets was performed as previously described. 36

Platelet flow cytometry assay

Antibody staining of washed platelets for flow cytometry was performed as described previously. 36

Imaging flow cytometry in whole blood

Imaging flow cytometry was performed on an Amnis ImageStreamX MK II two-camera system using anti-CD45 AF488, anti-CD41 AF647, and anti-CD62P-PE. Details and the gating strategy are described in Supplementary data online , Methods .

Whole blood in vitro thrombosis assay

Shear flow experiments of whole blood were performed with a Cellix Microfluidics System (Cellix, Dublin, Ireland) as previously described and outlined in Supplementary data online , Methods . 36–38 The extent of platelet activation and adhesion to the collagen matrix was quantified using computer-assisted tomographic analyses, as previously described. 35

Carotid artery FeCl 3 injury model

The FeCl 3 -induced carotid artery injury model was performed using intravital fluorescence microscopy with continuous image capture monitoring, as previously described. 39 Time to cessation of blood flow through thrombus formation for all experiments was determined by visual inspection by two independent investigators.

Untargeted and targeted mass spectrometry analyses of human plasma

For untargeted mass spectrometry analyses, subject plasma samples were derivatized and run on gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analyses as previously described. 19 Raw data files were processed using the metabolomics BinBase database. 40

Stable isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was developed to specifically quantify xylitol in human and mouse plasma, urine, and faeces (faecal pellets were dissolved in water and supernatant subjected to LC-MS/MS). The chromatographic separation of xylitol from its structural isomers is shown in Supplementary data online , Figure S1 . Accuracy and precision of the method to quantify xylitol (separated from its structural isomers arabitol and ribitol) were assessed by a standard addition method 41 of pure synthetic standard into three different plasma pools. Accuracy was 2.4%–2.8%, and intra- and inter-day coefficients of variation (CVs), were 1.2%–8.9% and 10.9%–11.5%, respectively. Urine creatinine was similarly analysed by stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS using D 3 -creatinine as internal standard as previously described. 42 Erythritol was quantified by stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS as previously described. 19 Further details for all assays can be found in Supplementary data online , Methods .

Statistical analysis

Continuous variables are summarized as median [interquartile range (IQR)], and categorical variables are presented as %. Difference between groups (e.g. tertiles) was examined using Kruskal–Wallis test for continuous variables and χ 2 test for categorical variables. Kaplan–Meier analysis with Cox proportional hazards regression was used for time-to-event analysis to determine hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for incident major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE). Adjustments included traditional cardiovascular risk factors (age, sex, diabetes mellitus, systolic blood pressure, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels, triglyceride levels, smoking status) and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP). In some analyses, estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was used in addition to the aforementioned variables in the adjustment. We confirmed that the proportionality hazards assumptions were met using the Schoenfeld residuals against the transformed time. Mann–Whitney U -test or Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank test were applied to continuous variables to examine differences between two groups. Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test was used for pairwise multiple comparisons of ranked data. Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Šidák’s multiple comparison post hoc test was used for multiple-group comparisons of aggregometry responses using different concentrations of agonists. For analysis of collagen-dependent platelet adhesion in whole blood, a two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Sidák’s multiple comparison post hoc test was used. All reported measurements represent distinct samples. Data analyses were performed with R software (version 4.2.2) and GraphPad Prism software (version 9.1.2). A two-sided P < .05 was considered statistically significant.

Untargeted metabolomics analyses in a discovery cohort suggested xylitol was associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes

We have previously utilized untargeted metabolomics as a discovery platform to identify metabolites and pathways linked to residual CVD risks beyond traditional established risk factors. 19 , 36 , 43 , 44 During the conduct of those untargeted mass spectrometry studies, we examined plasma from sequential stable subjects undergoing elective diagnostic cardiac evaluations (discovery cohort, n = 1157) and observed that numerous polyols, including a metabolite with presumed pre-derivatization elemental composition of C 5 H 12 O 5 and tentatively classified as xylitol, showed significant difference in level between those who experienced an incident (3-year) adverse cardiovascular event vs. those who did not. 19 In new studies, we performed further analyses of the raw untargeted metabolomics data from this discovery cohort ( Table 1 and Table S1 show baseline characteristics), this time utilizing a fragment ion more selective for xylitol as quantifying ion ( Methods ). As shown in Figure 1A , left, levels of the analyte tentatively annotated as xylitol showed enhanced relative abundance in subjects who experienced (vs. not) a MACE during the ensuing 3 years of follow-up. Further examination showed subjects with increased levels of the analyte [tertile 3 (T3) vs. either T1 or T2] displayed both poorer event-free survival in Kaplan–Meier survival analyses ( Figure 1A , middle) and significant increased risk for incident (3-year) MACE [T3 vs. T1, HR (95% CI), 1.63 (1.04–2.53), P < .05] in Cox proportional hazards regression analyses, including following adjustments for traditional CVD risk factors and hsCRP [adjusted(a)HR (95% CI), 1.64 (1.05–2.56), P < .05; Figure 1A , right].

Xylitol levels are associated with higher risks of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) in the discovery and validation cohorts. ( A , left) Circulating levels of a polyol tentatively assigned as xylitol (from untargeted metabolomics) in discovery cohort subjects. Boxes represent IQR with the notch indicating the median. Lower whiskers represent the smallest observation (≥25% quantile − 1.5 × IQR) and upper whiskers the largest observation (≤75% quantile + 1.5 × IQR). Two-tailed Mann–Whitney P -values are indicated. (Middle) Kaplan–Meier plot for 3-year MACE stratified by tertiles (T) of relative levels of xylitol in discovery cohort subjects. P -values were calculated with log rank test. (Right) Hazard ratios (HR) for incident 3-year MACE based on univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. Data points indicate HR, and 95% confidence intervals are represented by line length. Multivariable adjustments include age, sex, smoking, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and hsCRP. ( B , left) Circulating xylitol levels (from quantitative stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS analysis) in discovery cohort subjects. Boxes represent IQR with the notch indicating the median. Lower whiskers represent the smallest observation (≥25% quantile − 1.5 × IQR) and upper whiskers the largest observation (≤75% quantile + 1.5 × IQR). Two-tailed Mann–Whitney P -values are indicated. (Middle) Kaplan–Meier plot for 3-year MACE stratified by tertiles (T) of plasma xylitol levels in the validation cohort. P -values were calculated with log rank test. (Right) HR for incident 3-year MACE based on univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression analysis. Data points indicate HR, and 95% confidence intervals are represented by line length. Multivariable adjustments include age, sex, smoking, diabetes, systolic blood pressure, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and hsCRP

Baseline characteristics of the discovery and validation cohorts

The baseline characteristics of participants in the discovery cohort and validation cohort are shown. Continuous variables are summarized as median [interquartile range (IQR)], and categorical variables are presented as %.

ACE, angiotensin converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; BMI, body mass index; hsCRP, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein.

Stable isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry analyses of xylitol in the validation cohort

Untargeted metabolomics studies are both semi-quantitative and not designed to necessarily distinguish between structural isomers. For example, xylitol and its isomers arabitol and ribitol all share identical elemental composition (C 5 H 12 O 5 ) and overall structure (see Supplementary data online , Figure S1 ) and have similar physicochemical properties; the isomers also have similar mass spectrometry fragmentation patterns and often co-chromatograph under routine separation protocols employed during untargeted metabolomics ( Methods ). We therefore developed a stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS assay with conditions that provided baseline separation of xylitol from its structural isomers (see Supplementary data online , Figure S1 ) and then applied the method to unequivocally quantify xylitol in an independent (non-overlapping) validation cohort ( n = 2149) comprised of stable subjects undergoing elective diagnostic cardiac evaluation ( Table 1 and Table S2 ). Higher plasma levels of xylitol were again observed among subjects who experienced MACE ( Figure 1B , left). Kaplan–Meier analysis similarly revealed higher levels of circulating xylitol were associated with poorer event-free survival over the follow-up period ( Figure 1B , middle). In time-to-event Cox proportional hazards analysis, subjects with higher plasma xylitol levels had significantly increased risk of incident (3-year) MACE [HR (95% CI), 1.81 (1.29–2.53), P < .001], including following adjustments for traditional cardiovascular risk factors and hsCRP [aHR (95% CI), 1.57 (1.12–2.21), P < .01; Figure 1B , right]. Elevated levels of xylitol were similarly associated with incident risk in males and females alike, with no sex-specificity noted ( P interaction for sex .51). Further, in Cox regression models where xylitol was treated as a continuous variable, xylitol remained independently associated with MACE following adjustments for traditional cardiovascular risk factors and hsCRP [aHR 1.06 (1.01–1.11) per SD of xylitol, P = .023]. In further analyses, elevated xylitol levels (T3 vs. T1) were also associated with incident thrombotic event risks [aHR 1.80 (1.05–3.08), P = .03]. In parallel analyses, we looked at long-term risk of MACE amongst validation cohort subgroups defined by multiple platelet-related phenotypes (see Supplementary data online , Figure S2 ). The significant association between xylitol levels with incident MACE risk was observed amongst subjects on anti-platelet drugs and, in general, amongst all subgroups examined where subjects were stratified by multiple different platelet functional metrics ( P for interaction in all subgroups >.35; Supplementary data online , Figure S2 ). When kidney function (eGFR) was included into the fully adjusted model, the association of xylitol with MACE remained significant [aHR 1.50 (1.06–2.11), P = .02].

Examination of post-prandial circulating levels of xylitol following ingestion of a xylitol-sweetened drink

Plasma levels monitored in both the discovery cohort and the validation cohort were following overnight (>12 h) fast. Since ‘naturally sweetened’ or ‘keto-friendly’ processed foods and beverages can contain large amounts of xylitol and thus might substantially increase circulating levels in the post-prandial setting, before performing platelet function studies, we assessed how high circulating levels of xylitol reach following a commonly observed dietary exposure. Post-prandial levels of xylitol were measured in healthy volunteers ( n = 10) following ingestion of a xylitol-sweetened (30 g) water, an exposure comparable with a pint of numerous xylitol-sweetened ice creams, a xylitol-sweetened bakery good, or several pieces of xylitol-sweetened candy ( clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT04731363; Methods , Supplementary data online , Table S3 ). At baseline (following overnight fast), plasma levels of xylitol were low [median (IQR), 0.30 (0.27–0.34) µM] and comparable with quartile 1 (Q1) values observed in the validation cohort ( Figure 1B , right). However, 30 min following ingestion, 1000-fold increases in plasma levels were noted [median (IQR), 312 (134–629) µM], with concurrent and subsequent excretion in the urine ( Figure 2A and Supplementary data online , Figure S3 ). Plasma xylitol levels returned to low-micromolar levels within 4 to 6 h [median (IQR), 1.87 (1.43–2.80) µM and 0.67 (0.57–1.25) µM, respectively], with a plasma half-life of ∼13 (± 4) min. The rapid rate of xylitol excretion observed in healthy volunteers with return to near baseline (fasting) levels within hours following ingestion of a significant dietary exposure suggests that the plasma levels observed in our observational (validation) cohort represent variations in endogenous production/levels and not food intake.

Xylitol levels following oral challenge and effect of xylitol platelet responsiveness. ( A ) Study participants ( n = 10) were given 30 g of xylitol dissolved in water to ingest. Xylitol levels were quantified via LC-MS/MS in the blood before and at the indicated times after the xylitol challenge in the first four subjects. In the remainder of subjects, xylitol levels were measured before and 30 min after xylitol challenge. Values listed above data points at each time point represent median (IQR). The distribution of fasting (≥12 h) plasma xylitol levels observed in the validation cohort is also shown: the dashed lines represent the upper and lower range, and the dotted lines indicate the bottom boundaries at quartiles (Q) 2, 3, and 4 in the validation cohort. ( B and C ) PRP was isolated from healthy volunteers and used to study the effects of varying levels of xylitol on agonist-induced platelet aggregometry. Scatter plots show aggregometry responses for fixed concentrations of xylitol (30 μM, red circles) vs. vehicle (blue circles) with different concentrations of ADP ( A ) or thrombin receptor activator peptide (TRAP6, B ) with line representing medians. Global P -values (for xylitol effect) were calculated with two-way ANOVA and Šídák’s multiple comparisons test to compare groups. * P < .05, ** P < .01, *** P < .001. Bar graphs (magnified areas) show submaximal ADP-stimulated (2 μM, A ) and TRAP6-stimulated (5 μM, B ) platelet aggregometry responses of human PRP following incubation with xylitol (30 μM, red) vs. normal saline (vehicle, blue), with line and whiskers representing means (±SD). P -values were calculated by two-tailed Mann–Whitney test. ( D and E ) Aggregometry responses of human PRP with varying concentrations of xylitol and fixed submaximal concentration of ADP (2 μM, D ) and TRAP6 (5 μM, E ) with lines and whiskers representing medians (IQR). P -values were calculated by two-sided Kruskal–Wallis (K.W.) test with Dunn’s post hoc test. * P < .05, ** P < .01, *** P < .001. Bar graph data are represented as means (±SD). P -values were calculated by two-tailed Mann–Whitney test

Physiological levels of xylitol augment platelet responsiveness

The observed positive association between xylitol and incident thrombotic event risk ( Figure 1 ) suggested a potential impact of xylitol on platelet function. In initial studies, we assessed whether xylitol can impact platelet responsiveness using physiological concentrations of xylitol (i.e. at levels observed in overnight fasted subjects from our validation cohort, which is comprised of subjects with relatively preserved renal function; Table 1 ). Brief incubation of human PRP recovered from healthy volunteers with a fixed physiological (Q4) level of xylitol (30 µM) showed no effect. However, when platelets were exposed to the same fixed xylitol concentration in the presence of submaximal levels of known agonists such as adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or the thrombin receptor activator peptide TRAP6, marked enhancement in stimulus-dependent platelet activation and aggregation was observed ( Figure 2B and C ). Employing a different study design, we next instead used a fixed submaximal level of each of the platelet agonists (ADP or TRAP6) and varying levels of pre-incubation with xylitol. Notably, a dose-dependent enhancement in the extent of platelet responsiveness was observed across both the physiological range of xylitol in fasting subjects in our clinical (validation) cohort (e.g. 30 µM) and extending to the post-prandial levels observed in healthy volunteers following consumption of xylitol [e.g. we also examined 300 µM ( Figure 2D and E ), though post-prandial levels of up to ∼1000 µM were observed; Figure 2A ]. Collectively, these data show that within the range of fasting plasma (endogenous) levels of xylitol observed in our cohort, xylitol augments stimulus-dependent platelet responsiveness (i.e. shifts the dose response curve for known agonists to the left). Moreover, post-prandial levels of xylitol were observed to enhance platelet reactivity to an even greater extent.

Platelet aggregation responses can involve factors beyond direct interaction with platelets. We therefore isolated washed human platelets from healthy volunteers to directly test whether xylitol interacts with the platelets and impacts agonist-induced intracellular cytosolic calcium release. Brief (15–30 min) pre-incubation of Fura 2, loaded platelets with varying levels of xylitol, dose-dependently enhanced submaximal (0.02 U) thrombin-evoked intracellular Ca 2+ release in multiple different platelet preparations ( Figure 3A and B ). In parallel experiments, exposure of washed human platelets to physiological levels of xylitol caused dose-dependent enhancement in multiple examined platelet activation phenotypes including ADP-stimulated P-selectin surface expression and glycoprotein α2β3 (GP IIb/IIIa) activation ( Figure 3C and D ). Activated platelets bind to leucocytes—a process that leads to mutual changes in cellular effector functions and is associated with various CVD phenotypes. 45 We therefore also examined the effect of xylitol on platelet–leucocyte aggregates. For these studies, we used imaging flow cytometry since it is optimized for cell–cell interaction and, in contrast to conventional flow cytometry, distinguishes between tethered platelets (genuine platelet–leucocyte aggregates) from coincidental, untethered platelets near leucocytes. 46 Following brief pre-incubation with a range of physiological levels of xylitol, whole blood from healthy volunteers showed a dose-dependent increase in TRAP6-stimulated platelet–leucocyte aggregates ( Figure 3E ).

Xylitol increases stimulus-dependent intracellular calcium release and markers for activation in human platelets. ( A ) Representative fluorescent signal showing thrombin (0.02 U)-induced changes in intracellular calcium release in Fura 2-filled washed human platelets incubated with xylitol. ( B ) Fold change (relative to vehicle) in peak Fura 2 fluorescence following submaximal (0.02 U) thrombin stimulation at the indicated concentrations of xylitol in washed human platelets. Bars show mean with SEM indicated by whiskers. P -values were calculated by two-sided Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test. * P < .05; ** P < .01; *** P < .001. ( C ) ADP-induced changes in P -selectin surface expression in washed human platelets pre-incubated with the indicated concentrations of xylitol. Plotted are interquartile ranges (boxes). The line in the box is the median, and whiskers represent minimum and maximum values. P -values were calculated by two-sided Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test. * P < .05; ** P < .01; *** P < .001, **** P < .0001. ( D ) ADP-induced changes in GP IIb/IIIa (PAC-1 antibody staining) in washed human platelets pre-incubated with the indicated concentrations of xylitol. Plotted are interquartile ranges (boxes). The line in the box is the median, and whiskers represent minimum and maximum values. P -values were calculated by two-sided Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test. * P < .05; ** P < .01; *** P < .001, **** P < .0001. ( E , left) Representative fluorescent images of platelet–leucocyte aggregates (BF, bright field, CD45 in green, P -selectin in yellow, CD41 in red, merged image) in human whole blood stimulated with TRAP6 (7.5 μM). (Right) Numbers of platelet–leucocyte aggregates (CD45+, P -selectin+, CD41+) quantified by image stream in human whole blood incubated with indicated concentrations of xylitol at baseline (blue circles) and stimulated with 7.5 μM TRAP6 (red circles) relative to vehicle control with TRAP6. N numbers shown for donors for TRAP-stimulated blood samples, for unstimulated samples n = 6–8. P -values were calculated by two-sided Kruskal–Wallis test with Dunn’s post hoc test. * P < .05; ** P < .01; *** P < .001

Xylitol enhances platelet clotting in whole blood and thrombosis potential in vivo

To investigate the effect of xylitol on the initial step in thrombus formation, platelet adhesion to a collagen surface, we examined platelet adhesion in whole blood under physiological shear flow using a microfluidics device. 35 Xylitol substantially accelerated the rate of collagen-dependent platelet adhesion and spreading under physiological shear flow ( Figure 4A ). In additional studies, the impact of xylitol on in vivo thrombosis potential was assessed using a FeCl 3 -induced carotid artery injury model. 39 In preliminary studies, mice showed poor oral absorption of xylitol (in comparison with erythritol) in both feeding studies (when provided in drinking water or food) and in studies where the sugar alcohol was delivered by gastric gavage (see Supplementary data online , Figure S4 ). Thus, an i.p. injection model was performed to recapitulate physiological plasma levels of xylitol in mice that paralleled those observed in humans. Compared with vehicle (saline) control, mice with elevated plasma levels of xylitol exhibited both a marked increase in the rate of clot formation ( Figure 4B , left) and a significant reduction of the time to cessation of blood flow following arterial injury ( Figure 4B , right).

Xylitol enhances in vivo clot formation. ( A ) Human platelet adhesion in whole blood to a collagen-coated microfluidic chip surface under physiological shear conditions ± xylitol. Representative images of platelet (green) adhesion at the indicated times (scale bar, 50 μm). P -values were calculated by two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Šídák’s post hoc test. Overall, P -value (xylitol effect) is shown in black, and Šídák’s post hoc test P -values are shown in red over the three follow-up times. Data is represented as means (±SEM). ( B ) Representative micrographs of carotid artery thrombus formation at the indicated time points following FeCl 3 -induced carotid artery injury (scale bar, 200 μm) and time to cessation of blood flow in mice from indicated groups i.p. injected with vehicle or xylitol. Bars represent means, and two-sided P -values were calculated by Mann–Whitney test. Plasma xylitol concentrations in both groups are indicated as means (±SEM)

Xylitol dietary challenge in subjects enhances multiple indices of platelet reactivity

Since our studies with isolated washed human platelets, PRP, whole blood, and murine in vivo thrombosis models all suggested that xylitol can impact platelet responsiveness, we next sought to examine whether dietary exposure to xylitol impacted platelet phenotypes in humans following ingestion of xylitol-sweetened water. For these studies, we rapidly isolated PRP from healthy volunteers ( n = 10) before and 30 min after ingestion of xylitol ( clinicaltrials.gov identifier NCT04731363, Methods ) and assessed agonist-induced aggregation responses. As noted before, xylitol ingestion significantly increased post-prandial (30 min) plasma levels [median (IQR), 312 (134–629) µM]. In parallel, platelet functional analyses revealed xylitol exposure provoked a substantial (multiple-fold) increase in aggregation responses to either ADP or TRAP6 ( P < .0001 at all doses examined; Figure 5 ), in line with our in vitro studies using similar concentrations of xylitol ( Figure 2D and   E ). When responses of individual subjects to submaximal agonist (ADP and TRAP6) concentrations were examined, a significant increase in platelet responsiveness was observed following xylitol ingestion in every subject ( Figure 6 , Supplementary data online , Figures S5 and S6 ). Further, subjects showing the largest increases in platelet responsiveness post-xylitol challenge also tended to have the highest post-prandial xylitol levels, and a strong positive correlation was noted between post-prandial xylitol levels and either ADP-induced or TRAP-induced aggregation responses (Spearman rho 0.71 and 0.74, respectively; P < .0001 for each; Supplementary data online , Figure S7 ).

Effect of routine dietary xylitol challenge on platelet responsiveness in healthy subjects. ( A and B ) Study participants ( n = 10) were given 30 g of xylitol in a drink. Before and 30 min after the xylitol challenge, PRP was rapidly isolated, and platelet aggregometry was performed using different concentrations of ADP ( A ) and TRAP6 ( B ). Shown are aggregation responses of paired samples (baseline and post-xylitol) that were analysed together. Boxes represent interquartile ranges (IQR) with the notch indicating the median. Lower whiskers represent the smallest observation (≥25% quantile − 1.5 × IQR) and upper whiskers the largest observation (≤75% quantile + 1.5 × IQR). The total number of replicates (multiple replicates per donor) and the total number of individual donors for each agonist concentration are indicated. P -values were calculated with the Kruskal–Wallis (K.W.) test with a Dunn post hoc analysis

Effect of dietary xylitol exposure on platelet responsiveness in individual subjects. ( A and B ) Platelet aggregation responses in PRP from each subject in response to submaximal concentration of ADP (2 μM, A ) and TRAP6 (7.5 μM, B ) before and after xylitol exposure. Shown are aggregation responses of paired samples (baseline and post-xylitol) that were analysed together. Boxes represent interquartile ranges (IQR) with the notch indicating the median. Lower whiskers represent the smallest observation (≥25% quantile − 1.5 × IQR) and upper whiskers the largest observation (≤75% quantile + 1.5 × IQR). The total number of replicates per individual donor is indicated. All subjects showed significant differences in agonist-induced aggregation ( P < .05) for pairwise comparison (pre- vs. post-xylitol exposure) except for Subject 1 with only three replicates, and Subject 10 with four replicates showed P = .07 for TRAP6 stimulation. P -values were calculated with the Kruskal–Wallis (K.W.) test with a Dunn post hoc analysis

Many studies, including data analyses from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), have confirmed a dramatic increase of low-calorie sweetener use over the past decades. 47 Meanwhile, the consumption of sweeteners is likely underestimated because of the lack of itemized listing of specific low-calorie sweeteners on labels in many reduced- and low-calorie processed foods and the lack of disclosure requirements (e.g. for the quantity used) in policies for food labelling by both the FDA and EU. 48 Remarkably, artificial sweeteners have even been detected in presumed ‘non-consumers’ who were counselled extensively to avoid artificial sweetener exposure before they were enrolled into randomized clinical trials. 49 Moreover, the increases in artificial sweetener use have even reached levels where they are readily detected within ground water and waste effluent, where their detection and quantification has been recommended as ‘ideal chemical markers of domestic wastewater in groundwater’. 50 Although non-nutritive and low-calorie sweeteners have historically been GRAS by public agencies (e.g. EU 4 and the FDA, 3 ) several cohort studies, 13–17 but not all, 51 , 52 have linked ingestion of artificially sweetened foods with cardiometabolic adverse phenotypes. This recently prompted authorities, including the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) and the World Health Organization, to re-evaluate exposure and toxicity of sweeteners, in particular with respect to potential long-term effects on health. 53 , 54 In light of the substantial rise in the incorporation of artificial sweeteners into our food chain and the present studies identifying both clinical and mechanistic links between xylitol and CVD risks and relevant phenotypes, further studies that assess their long-term cardiovascular safety seem warranted.

Polyol sweeteners like xylitol are difficult to quantify since they possess multiple structural isomers that differ only in the spatial orientation of the hydroxyl groups on the molecule. These difficulties, coupled with limited regulatory requirements for disclosure, have hampered their quantification in epidemiological studies to explore links between levels of sweeteners in blood and both metabolic and CVD risks. In the present studies, an unambiguous link between plasma levels of xylitol and incident MACE risks was observed in our validation cohort, where xylitol was separated from its structural isomers and quantified using isotope dilution LC-MS/MS. Further, comparisons between xylitol levels that elicit increases in platelet reactivity and in vivo thrombosis potential suggest even at elevated plasma levels among overnight fasted subjects (e.g. Q4), significant increases in platelet responsiveness are observed. By performing human clinical intervention studies exploring the physiological effects of xylitol ingestion, a marked enhancement in multiple indices of platelet responsiveness was observed in every subject examined ( Structured Graphical Abstract ). Collectively, the body of evidence accrued, including in vitro , in vivo (animal model), and xylitol human ingestion studies, argues for a direct effect of the low-calorie sweetener xylitol on platelet function and thrombosis potential in vivo .

Interestingly, during the conduct of these and prior studies, we note inter-species differences in the absorption and metabolism of different sugar alcohols, arguing for both the necessity of monitoring circulating levels of specific molecular species in studies (to confirm what is ingested is actually absorbed) and the need for human clinical investigations. For example, we found xylitol, like erythritol, 19 is readily absorbed following oral ingestion by humans, with plasma levels increasing over 1000-fold in the post-prandial setting. However, our present studies also revealed that in mice, in contrast to erythritol, which is rapidly absorbed by oral route, 19 xylitol is poorly absorbed, with the majority of the ingested sugar alcohol recovered in faeces (see Supplementary data online , Figure S4 ). We therefore used intraperitoneal injection to elevate xylitol plasma levels in mice to the concentrations observed in humans, allowing for testing the effect of systemic exposures in rodent models analogous to those experienced in humans ( Methods ). Another example of inter-species differences in metabolism of sugar alcohols like xylitol within mammals occurs with dogs. While xylitol does not induce glucose or insulin secretion in humans or rodents, 55 , 56 it is highly toxic to dogs, where it provokes extreme insulin secretion, 57 and numerous reports list the extensive use of xylitol in human processed foods as a warning for pet (dog) owners. 58

Despite the clear evidence for xylitol inducing a direct physiological effect on isolated human platelets, the molecular participants involved (i.e. receptor) transmitting the effect on platelet function remain unknown. Indeed, little is known about how polyol sweeteners are recognized by cells. In the present studies, when added at submaximal levels, xylitol enhanced stimulus-induced platelet aggregation responses to multiple agonists (e.g. ADP, thrombin, collagen) and in vivo thrombosis formation. Collectively, when coupled with recent observations with erythritol, 19 our data suggest that xylitol and erythritol (and possibly other sugar alcohol polyol sweeteners) act on converging pathways to enhance platelet responsiveness and in vivo thrombosis potential. They thus argue for a potential adverse class effect of some sugar alcohol sweeteners, a finding that is highly relevant for both the processed food industry and the diets of the more vulnerable subjects most likely to consume multiple artificial sweeteners (diabetics, obese, those with CVD).

One topic that deserves further discussion is the relationship in the large-scale clinical observational studies performed associating plasma levels of xylitol with incident risks of MACE and dietary exposures to xylitol. The present studies, we believe, argue that the observed associations noted in the discovery and validation cohorts reflect endogenous xylitol levels (steady state between endogenous production and excretion) and not recent dietary exposure. First, while a limitation of the present studies is the lack of any information on xylitol dietary exposure in the clinical observational cohorts, given the speed with which we observe xylitol is excreted (i.e. half-life of elimination was ∼15 min, and post-prandial plasma levels in healthy volunteers, despite reaching 1000-fold increases, return to near baseline levels within 6 h; Figure 2A ), the fasting (>12 h) plasma levels monitored in the discovery and validation cohorts likely represent endogenous levels of xylitol production. Second, the enrolment of subjects in the validation cohort largely predates the more recent increases in dietary exposure to xylitol in processed foods. We also note that it is across variations in endogenous levels [measured in overnight (>12 h) fasting samples] that our initial clinical observational studies observe heightened MACE risks in subjects with higher xylitol levels (e.g. Q4 vs. Q1). Xylitol is endogenously produced within cells where it serves as an intermediate of the glucuronic acid pathway—an alternative route of glucose utilization that provides biosynthetic precursors and involves detoxification through glucuronidation with an estimated endogenous production of 15 g daily in subjects. 31 , 59 , 60 As far as we are aware, the glucuronic acid pathway has not yet been linked with CVD pathogenesis. However, we note that in recent studies, glucuronic acid levels were reported to be associated with health span and longevity in both population-based cohort studies and in mice. 61 Yet, other studies have linked glucuronic acid pathway intermediates with cell migration and metastasis. 62 Finally, we also think it important to mention that throughout the evolution of humans, Homo sapiens have not experienced millimolar levels of xylitol in plasma, i.e. until its introduction into our food chain within the past decade or so. The present studies show, however, that even at plasma xylitol levels as low as 19 µM in animal models of thrombosis ( Figure 4B ), well within the fourth quartile of our fasting plasma levels from a cohort (validation) of subjects with largely preserved renal function, we observe significant heightened thrombosis potential in vivo . Based on our additional human intervention study data ( Figures 2 , 5 , and 6 ), much higher post-prandial levels of xylitol (driven by consumption of dietary xylitol from artificially sweetened processed foods) can be superimposed on endogenous levels, substantially further enhancing thrombotic risk (especially in the post-prandial setting).

Our studies have several limitations. We only measured baseline fasting levels of xylitol in our clinical cohort studies; thus, whether serial measures of xylitol provide enhanced clinical prognostic value for CVD risk assessment remains unknown. In addition, as noted, our observational cohorts do not have dietary information. Moreover, our subjects have a high burden of CVD risk factors, and whether the results can be translated to a community-based setting needs to be determined. However, we note that in countries like the USA, most adults in their 40s have at least one chronic disease and in their 60s two or more chronic diseases, with cardiometabolic diseases including obesity, diabetes, and CVD among the most prevalent. A further limitation of our studies is that the initial observational cohort results are only associative in nature and there is the possibility for residual confounding. However, we also note that we used the observational cohort findings as hypothesis generating and supplemented these findings with numerous in vitro and in vivo studies, as well as an interventional human xylitol challenge study. Collectively, all results point to xylitol exerting a direct effect on platelet function and thrombosis potential in vivo , not only at levels observed in the post-prandial setting but also across the distribution of overnight fasting (and presumed endogenous) plasma xylitol levels observed. Our mechanistic studies also focused on a relatively brief exposure of xylitol, and the effects of chronic exposures need to be explored in future studies. We also note that the receptors involved in recognizing xylitol remain unknown. However, our studies show that xylitol directly elicited enhancement in stimulus-dependent intracellular calcium release and activation in isolated washed human platelets, including for various receptor systems (those recognizing ADP, thrombin, and collagen). Finally, beyond direct platelet effects of xylitol, further studies on different processes that contribute to coagulation are of interest, given the strong clinical association of xylitol levels with thrombotic event risk.

With increased availability and reduced production costs, artificial sweetener use in processed food has expanded in general and xylitol consumption specifically. Industrial production of xylitol has recently been advanced through new biotechnological methods that reduce cost and energy requirements [e.g. microbial and enzymatic fermentation with the substrate (xylose) obtained from abundant sources, such as wood and agriculture waste]. 63 These advances contribute to increasing global production rates and market penetration with more than a 40-fold increase of xylitol production over the last four decades. 64 For example, xylitol has even been proposed by some as a public health intervention for use in children to prevent dental caries, with recommendation of at least 6–10 g of xylitol daily. 32 Large amounts of xylitol are typically found in numerous processed foods designed for a diabetic diet, 65 like baked pastries, keto ice cream, and confectioneries, often exceeding 30 g per serving size. 32 , 58 Despite the recent guidance from the WHO recommending avoidance of artificial sweeteners for weight reduction, 5 the acceptable daily xylitol intake assigned by the WHO/FAO Expert Committee on Food Additives remains ‘not specified’. 66 Our studies suggest that xylitol will likely confer heightened thrombosis potential in the same vulnerable patients that it is marketed towards and intended to protect (e.g. subjects with diabetes, obesity, and CVD).

We thank Dr Gauravi Deshpande in the Lerner Research Institute Imaging Core for technical support during whole blood in vitro thrombosis studies. We also thank both Richard DeMarco and Dr Karina Inacio Ladislau De Carvalho for assistance with quantitative analyses of platelet–leucocyte interactions. We also thank Taylor Weeks for editorial assistance and Dave Schumick for assistance with the graphical illustration. S.L.H. reports support by grants from the NIH and Office of Dietary Supplements (P01 HL147823, R01 HL103866, R01 HL167831), and M.W. was supported in part by an award from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (WI 5229/1-1) and the Deutsche Stifterverband (S0199/10098/2023).

Supplementary data are available at European Heart Journal online.

Disclosure of Interest

S.L.H. and Z.W. report being named as co-inventors on pending and issued patents held by the Cleveland Clinic relating to cardiovascular diagnostics and therapeutics. S.L.H. and Z.W. also report having received royalty payments for inventions or discoveries related to cardiovascular diagnostics or therapeutics from Cleveland Heart Lab, a fully owned subsidiary of Quest Diagnostics, and Procter & Gamble. S.L.H. is a paid consultant for Zehna Therapeutics and formerly for Proctor & Gamble; has received research funds from Zehna Therapeutics, Proctor & Gamble, Pfizer, and Roche Diagnostics; and is eligible to receive royalty payments for inventions or discoveries related to cardiovascular diagnostics and therapeutics from Zehna Therapeutics. W.H.W.T. reports being a consultant for Sequana Medical A.G., Owkin Inc., Relypsa Inc., and PreCardiac Inc. and having received honorarium from Springer Nature for authorship/editorship and American Board of Internal Medicine for exam writing committee participation—all unrelated to the subject and contents of this paper. The other authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose.

Data Availability

Where permissible, the data sets generated and/or analysed during the present studies are available from the corresponding author on request. There are restrictions to the availability of some of the clinical data generated in the present study, because we do not have permission in our informed consent from research subjects to share data outside our institution without their authorizations. Custom R codes used in this manuscript can be accessed at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6780497 . Where permissible, source data are made available in the public data sharing repository ( https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10106620 ). Any additional information required to reanalyse the data reported in this paper is available from the lead contact upon request.

This work is supported by grants from the NIH and Office of Dietary Supplements (P01 HL147823, R01 HL103866), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (WI 5229/1-1), and the Deutsche Stifterverband (S0199/10098/2023).

Ethical Approval

We performed three distinct clinical studies. All human subjects provided written informed consent, and all human studies abided by the Declaration of Helsinki. The Institutional Review Board of the Cleveland Clinic approved all human study protocols [GeneBank IRB 4265; IRB 21-005 (xylitol ingestion related studies), healthy volunteer blood donors for platelet-related studies IRB 09-506]. All animal studies were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the Cleveland Clinic (IRB 2019-2251).

Pre-registered Clinical Trial Number

The pre-registered clinical trial number for GeneBank at the Cleveland Clinic is NCT00590200. The trial number for the xylitol intervention study is NCT04731363.

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• How to write an essay introduction | 4 steps & examples

How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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What is innovation?

When you think of innovation, what springs to mind? Maybe it’s a flashy new gadget—but don’t be mistaken. There’s much more to the world of innovation, which extends far beyond new products and things you’ll find on a store shelf.

Get to know and directly engage with senior McKinsey experts on innovation.

Marc de Jong is a senior partner in McKinsey’s Amsterdam office, Laura Furstenthal is a senior partner in the Bay Area office, and Erik Roth is a senior partner in the Stamford office.

If products alone aren’t the full story, what is innovation? In a business context, innovation is the ability to conceive, develop, deliver, and scale new products, services, processes, and business models for customers.

Successful innovation delivers net new growth that is substantial. As McKinsey senior partner Laura Furstenthal  notes in an episode of the Inside the Strategy Room podcast , “However you measure it, innovation has to increase value and drive growth.”

As important as innovation is, getting it right can be challenging. Over 80 percent of executives surveyed  say that innovation is among their top three priorities, yet less than 10 percent report being satisfied with their organizations’ innovation performance. Many established companies are better operators than innovators , producing few new and creative game changers. Most succeed by optimizing existing core businesses.

Why is innovation important in business?

Some companies do succeed at innovation. Our research considered how proficient 183 companies were at innovation, and compared that assessment against a proprietary database of economic profit  (the total profit minus the cost of capital). We found that companies that harness the essentials of innovation see a substantial performance edge that separates them from others—with evidence that mastering innovation can generate economic profit that is 2.4 times higher than that of other players .

Learn more about our Strategy & Corporate Finance  practice.

How can leaders decide what innovations to prioritize?

Successful innovation has historically occurred at the intersection of several elements, which can guide prioritization efforts. The three most important elements are the who, the what, and the how :

• An unmet customer need (the ‘who’): Who is the customer and what problem do they need to solve? Are macrotrends such as automation driving changes in customer needs?
• A solution (the ‘what’): Is the solution compelling and can it be executed?
• A business model that allows for the solution to be monetized (the ‘how’): How will the solution create value? What is the business model?

Successful innovation requires answers to each of these questions.

An example from inventor and businessman Thomas Edison helps illustrate the concept. “In every case, he did not just invent the what, he also invented a how,” says Furstenthal in a conversation on innovation . “In the case of the light bulb, he created the filament and the vacuum tube that allowed it to turn on and off, and he developed the production process that enabled mass production.”

Introducing McKinsey Explainers : Direct answers to complex questions

How do organizations become better innovators.

McKinsey conducted research into the attributes and behaviors behind superior innovation performance , which were validated in action at hundreds of companies. This research yielded eight critical elements  for organizations to master:

• Aspire: Do you regard innovation-led growth as critical, and have you put in place cascaded targets that reflect this?
• Choose: Do you invest in a coherent, time- and risk-balanced portfolio of initiatives, and do you devote sufficient resources to it?
• Discover: Are your business, market, and technology R&D efforts actionable and capable of being translated into winning value propositions?
• Evolve: Do you create new business models that provide defensible, robust, and scalable profit sources?
• Accelerate: Do you develop and launch innovations quickly and effectively?
• Scale: Do you launch innovations at the right scale in the relevant markets and segments?
• Extend: Do you create and capitalize on external networks?
• Mobilize: Are your people motivated, rewarded, and organized to innovate repeatedly?

Of these eight essentials, two merit particular attention : aspire and choose . Without these two elements, efforts may be too scattershot to make a lasting difference. It’s particularly crucial to ensure that leaders are setting bold aspirations and making tough choices when it comes to resource allocation and portfolio moves. To do so successfully, many leaders will need to shift their mindsets or management approaches.

What are examples of successful innovators?

Real-world examples of successful innovation, related to some of the eight essentials listed , can highlight the benefits of pursuing innovation systematically :

• Mercedes-Benz Group invested extensively in digitizing its product development system. That allowed the company to shorten its innovation cycles significantly , and its capabilities for personalizing cars have improved, even as assembly efficiency rose by 25 percent.
• Gavi, a public–private partnership founded to save children’s lives and protect their health by broadening access to immunization, used nonfinancial targets to help drive its innovation efforts —and this helped the organization broaden its aspiration for impact in a way that was bold, specific, measurable, and time bound.
• Lantmännen, a large Nordic agricultural cooperative, faced flat organic growth. Leadership created a vision and strategic plan  connected to financial targets cascaded down to business units and product groups. Doing so allowed the organization to move from 4 percent annual growth to 13 percent, on the back of successfully launching several new brands.
• The information services organization RELX Group brought discipline to choosing its innovation portfolio  by running ten to 15 experiments in each customer segment in its pipeline every year. It selects one or two of the most successful ideas from the portfolio to continue.
• International insurance company Discovery Group mobilized the organization around innovation  by creating incentives for a thousand of the company’s leaders using semiannual divisional scorecards. Innovation isn’t a choice; it’s a requirement and a part of the organization’s culture.

These examples aren’t necessarily what you may think of when you imagine disruptive innovation—which calls to mind moves that shake up an entire industry, and might be more associated with top tech trends  such as the Bio Revolution . Yet these examples show how committing to innovation can make a sizable difference.

How can my organization improve the volume and quality of new ideas?

Steps to help aspiring innovators  get started include the following:

• Hold collision sessions: Cross-functional groups gather in a structured process to think through the intersection of unmet customer needs, technology trends, and business models, bringing creativity and specificity to the process of idea generation. Then, a venture panel considers these ideas and iterates on them, prioritizing what to do.
• Challenge orthodoxies: Participants gather and describe beliefs that are common but that prevent the organization from innovating for customers. Examples of these orthodoxies include statements such as “budgets are limited” or “we don’t have the digital capabilities to pull it off.” Once the orthodoxies are laid out, teams brainstorm after being prompted to consider if the opposite of the statement were true.
• Make analogies to other industries: A team might create a list of companies with unique value propositions. Then, they systematically apply these value propositions to their ideas to see if the analogy can create new sources of value or fresh opportunities.
• Apply constraints: Rather than searching for blue-sky ideas, tighten the constraints on an idea’s business or operating model and explore potential new solutions. What if you served only one type of customer? What if the only channel you could access was online?

In the words of chemist Linus Pauling, “The way to get to good ideas is to get lots of ideas and throw the bad ones away.”

What is an innovation portfolio?

An innovation portfolio  is a thoughtfully curated bundle of potentially innovative initiatives, with clear aspirations and required resources defined for each. Managing the portfolio this way helps find new opportunities and determine the appropriate number and mix of initiatives, including the following:

• confirming the total value of the portfolio needed
• evaluating existing innovation projects based on incremental value delivered, risk, and alignment with strategic priorities
• getting comfortable saying “no” to stop projects that are dilutive, and resisting the siren song of incremental initiatives that are unlikely to pay for themselves
• reallocating resources—including competencies and skills—to new initiatives or to current ones that additional support can accelerate or amplify
• identifying portfolio gaps and defining new initiatives to close them

How to measure innovation?

One way to measure innovation is to look at innovation-driven net new growth, which we call the “green box.”  This phrase refers to how you quantify the growth in revenue or earnings that an innovation needs to provide within a defined timeframe. This concept can help clarify aspirations and influence choices on the innovation journey.

While many imagine that innovation is solely about creativity and generating ideas, at its core, innovation is a matter of resource allocation . To put it another way: it’s one thing to frame innovation as a catalyst for growth, and another to act upon it by refocusing people, assets, and management attention on the organization’s best ideas.

The green box can help to solidify a tangible commitment  by defining the value that a company creates from breakthrough and incremental innovation, on a defined timeline (say, five years), with quantifiable metrics such as net new revenue or earnings growth. Crucially, the green box looks at growth from innovation alone, setting aside other possible sources such as market momentum, M&A, and so forth. And once defined, the growth aspiration can be cascaded into a set of objectives and metrics that the company’s various operating units can incorporate into its individual innovation portfolios.

It’s useful to note that some organizations may find that measures not solely financial in nature are more appropriate or relevant. For instance, metrics such as the number of subscribers or patients—or customer satisfaction—can resonate. What’s critical is selecting a metric that is a proxy for value creation. A large US healthcare payer , for example, looked to spur innovation that would improve patient satisfaction and the quality of care.

Separate from the concept of the green box, two simple metrics  can also offer surprising insight about innovation vis-à-vis the effectiveness of an organization’s R&D spending. Both of these lend themselves to benchmarking, since they can be gauged from the outside in, and they offer insight at the level of a company’s full innovation portfolio. The two R&D conversion metrics are as follows:

• R&D-to-product conversion: This metric is calculated by looking at the ratio of R&D spending (as a portion of sales) to sales from new products. It can show how well your R&D dollars convert to actual sales of new products—and it might reveal that spending more doesn’t necessarily translate into stronger performance.
• New-products-to-margin conversion: This metric considers the ratio of gross margin percentage to sales from new products. It can indicate how new-product sales contribute to lifting margins.

While no metric is perfect, these may offer perspective that keeps the focus squarely on returns from innovation and the value it creates—often more meaningful than looking inward at measures of activity, such as the number of patents secured.

How do you create a high-performing innovation team?

Innovation is a team sport. Experience working with strong innovators and start-ups has helped identify ten traits of successful innovation teams . Those fall into four big categories: vision , or the ability to spot opportunities and inspire others to go after them; collaboration , which relates to fostering effective teamwork and change management (for instance, by telling a good innovation story ); learning or absorbing new ideas; and execution , with traits that facilitate snappy decision making even when uncertainty arises.

Being strategic about the composition of an innovation team can help minimize failures and bring discipline to the process.

What innovation advice can help business leaders?

One broad piece of advice centers on creating a culture that accounts for the human side of innovation . When people worry about failure, criticism, or the career impact of a wrong move, it can keep them from embracing innovation. In a recent poll, 85 percent of executives say fear holds back their organization’s innovation efforts often or always—but there are ways to overcome these barriers .

Additionally, the Committed Innovator podcast and related articles share perspectives from leading experts who have helped their organizations tackle inertia and unlock bold strategic moves. If you are looking for words of wisdom, their insights can help spark inspiration to innovate:

• Naomi Kelman, CEO, Willow . “Creating a safe environment for innovation is really what you need to do to get the greatness out of the people who work with you, which is ultimately what drives growth.”
• Safi Bahcall, author, Loonshots . “Most of the important breakthroughs failed many times before they succeeded. That is where ‘fail fast’ goes wrong. Most companies are too impatient.”
• Amy Brooks, chief innovation officer, National Basketball Association . “You can use data or examples to convince people about what is working in the market or what other industries are doing. We like to share best practices within our own leagues and within sports, but we also pay attention to every other industry that sells to consumers.”
• Tanya Baker, global leader, Goldman Sachs Accelerate . “If someone knowledgeable thinks what you are doing is a bad idea, make sure they have a seat at the table. Put them on your board; make them one of your advisers so you don’t have any blind spots.”
• Neal Gutterson, former chief technology officer, Corteva . “[A] key skill is being able to hold two divergent thoughts and approaches in your brain and in your team at the same time. The great companies will be ambidextrous innovators, able to disrupt themselves in the future while serving the core [business] today.”
• Anjali Sud, CEO, Vimeo . “What keeps me up at night is execution and, within that, focus. Because when you are in a market like ours, at a time like now, the opportunity is huge. We are this nimble, fast-growing, fast-moving company, and everywhere I look I see opportunity. But am I providing enough focus for my teams so that we can truly be great at something? You don’t want to miss a big boat, and it’s hard sometimes to say no to valid, exciting ideas that could be transformative.”

For more in-depth exploration of these topics, see McKinsey’s insights on Strategy & Corporate Finance . Learn more about McKinsey’s Growth & Innovation  work—and check out innovation-related job opportunities if you’re interested in working at McKinsey.

Articles referenced include:

• “ Fear factor: Overcoming human barriers to innovation ,” June 3, 2022, Laura Furstenthal , Alex Morris, and Erik Roth
• “ Innovation—the launchpad out of crisis ,” September 15, 2021, Laura Furstenthal  and Erik Roth
• “ The innovation commitment ,” October 24, 2019, Daniel Cohen, Brian Quinn, and Erik Roth
• “ Fielding high-performing innovation teams ,” January 17, 2019, Matt Banholzer , Fabian Metzeler, and Erik Roth
• “ Taking the measure of innovation ,” April 20, 2018, Guttorm Aase, Erik Roth , and Sri Swaminathan
• “ The eight essentials of innovation ,” April 1, 2015, Marc de Jong , Nathan Marston, and Erik Roth

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Fear factor: Overcoming human barriers to innovation

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The Changing Political Geography of COVID-19 Over the Last Two Years

Over the past two years, the official count of coronavirus deaths in the United States has risen and is now approaching 1 million lives. Large majorities of Americans say they personally know someone who has been hospitalized or died of the coronavirus , and it has impacted – in varying degrees – nearly every aspect of life .

A new Pew Research Center analysis of official reports of COVID-19-related deaths across the country, based on mortality data collected by The New York Times, shows how the dynamics of the pandemic have shifted over the past two years.

A timeline of the shifting geography of the pandemic

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand how the geography of the coronavirus outbreak has changed over its course. For this analysis, we relied on official reports of deaths attributed to the novel coronavirus collected and maintained by The New York Times .

The estimates provided in this report are subject to several sources of error. There may be significant differences between the true number of deaths due to COVID-19 and the official reported counts of those deaths. There may also be variation across the states in the quality and types of data reported. For example, most states report deaths based on the residency of the deceased person rather than the location where they died. The New York Times collects data from many different local health agencies, and this likely leads to some additional measurement error.

This analysis relies on county-level data. Counties in the United States vary widely in their population sizes, so in many places in the essay, we divide counties into approximately equal-sized groups (in terms of their population) for comparability or report on population adjusted death rates rather than total counts of deaths.

The pandemic has rolled across the U.S. unevenly and in waves. Today, the death toll of the pandemic looks very different from how it looked in the early part of 2020 . The first wave (roughly the first 125,000 deaths from March 2020 through June 2020) was largely geographically concentrated in the Northeast and in particular the New York City region. During the summer of 2020, the largest share of the roughly 80,000 deaths that occurred during the pandemic’s second wave were in the southern parts of the country.

The fall and winter months of 2020 and early 2021 were the deadliest of the pandemic to date. More than 370,000 Americans died of COVID-19 between October 2020 and April 2021; the geographic distinctions that characterized the earlier waves became much less pronounced.

By the spring and summer of 2021, the nationwide death rate had slowed significantly, and vaccines were widely available to all adults who wanted them. But starting at the end of the summer, the fourth and fifth waves (marked by new variants of the virus, delta and then omicron) came in quick succession and claimed more than 300,000 lives.

In many cases, the characteristics of communities that were associated with higher death rates at the beginning of the pandemic are now associated with lower death rates (and vice versa). Early in the pandemic, urban areas were disproportionately impacted. During the first wave, the coronavirus death rate in the 10% of the country that lives in the most densely populated counties was more than nine times that of the death rate among the 10% of the population living in the least densely populated counties. In each subsequent wave, however, the nation’s least dense counties have registered higher death rates than the most densely populated places.

Despite the staggering death toll in densely populated urban areas during the first months of the pandemic (an average 36 monthly deaths per 100,000 residents), the overall death rate over the course of the pandemic is slightly higher in the least populated parts of the country (an average monthly 15 deaths per 100,000 among the 10% living in the least densely populated counties vs. 13 per 100,000 among the 10% in the most densely populated counties).

As the relationship between population density and coronavirus death rates has changed over the course of the pandemic, so too has the relationship between counties’ voting patterns and their death rates from COVID-19.

In the spring of 2020, the areas recording the greatest numbers of deaths were much more likely to vote Democratic than Republican. But by the third wave of the pandemic, which began in fall 2020, the pattern had reversed: Counties that voted for Donald Trump over Joe Biden were suffering substantially more deaths from the coronavirus pandemic than those that voted for Biden over Trump. This reversal is likely a result of several factors including differences in mitigation efforts and vaccine uptake, demographic differences, and other differences that are correlated with partisanship at the county level.

During this third wave – which continued into early 2021 – the coronavirus death rate among the 20% of Americans living in counties that supported Trump by the highest margins in 2020 was about 170% of the death rate among the one-in-five Americans living in counties that supported Biden by the largest margins.

As vaccines became more widely available, this discrepancy between “blue” and “red” counties became even larger as the virulent delta strain of the pandemic spread across the country during the summer and fall of 2021, even as the total number of deaths fell somewhat from its third wave peak.

During the fourth wave of the pandemic, death rates in the most pro-Trump counties were about four times what they were in the most pro-Biden counties. When the highly transmissible omicron variant began to spread in the U.S. in late 2021, these differences narrowed substantially. However, death rates in the most pro-Trump counties were still about 180% of what they were in the most pro-Biden counties throughout late 2021 and early 2022.

The cumulative impact of these divergent death rates is a wide difference in total deaths from COVID-19 between the most pro-Trump and most pro-Biden parts of the country. Since the pandemic began, counties representing the 20% of the population where Trump ran up his highest margins in 2020 have experienced nearly 70,000 more deaths from COVID-19 than have the counties representing the 20% of population where Biden performed best. Overall, the COVID-19 death rate in all c ounties Trump won in 2020 is substantially higher than it is in counties Biden won (as of the end of February 2022, 326 per 100,000 in Trump counties and 258 per 100,000 in Biden counties).

Partisan divide in COVID-19 deaths widened as more vaccines became available

Partisan differences in COVID-19 death rates expanded dramatically after the availability of vaccines increased. Unvaccinated people are at far higher risk of death and hospitalization from COVID-19, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and vaccination decisions are strongly associated with partisanship . Among the large majority of counties for which reliable vaccination data exists, counties that supported Trump at higher margins have substantially lower vaccination rates than those that supported Biden at higher margins.

Counties with lower rates of vaccination registered substantially greater death rates during each wave in which vaccines were widely available.

During the fall of 2021 (roughly corresponding to the delta wave), about 10% of Americans lived in counties with adult vaccination rates lower than 40% as of July 2021. Death rates in these low-vaccination counties were about six times as high as death rates in counties where 70% or more of the adult population was vaccinated.

More Americans were vaccinated heading into the winter of 2021 and 2022 (roughly corresponding to the omicron wave), but nearly 10% of the country lived in areas where less than half of the adult population was vaccinated as of November 2021. Death rates in these low-vaccination counties were roughly twice what they were in counties that had 80% or more of their population vaccinated. ( Note: The statistics here reflect the death rates in the county as a whole, not rates for vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals, though individual-level data finds that death rates among unvaccinated people are far higher than among vaccinated people.)

This analysis relies on official reports of deaths attributed to COVID-19 in the United States collected and reported by The New York Times .

COVID-19 deaths in Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories are not included in this analysis. Additionally, deaths without a specific geographic location have been excluded.

Data was pulled from the GitHub repository maintained by The New York Times on March 1, 2022, and reflects reported coronavirus deaths through Feb. 28.

There are several anomalies in the deaths data. Many locales drop off their reporting on the weekends and holidays. In addition to the rhythm of the reporting cycle, there are many instances where a locality will revise the count of its deaths downward (usually only by a small amount) or release a large batch of previously unreported deaths on a single day. The downward revisions were identified and retroactively applied to earlier days.

Large batches of cases were identified by finding days that increased by more than 10 deaths and were 10 standard deviations above the norm for a county within a 30-day window. Deaths reported in these anomalous batches were then evenly distributed across the days leading up to when they were released.

Population data for U.S. counties comes from the 2015-2019 American Community Survey estimates published by the Census Bureau (accessed through the tidycensus package in R on Feb. 21). The 2020 vote share for each county was purchased from Dave Leip’s Election Atlas (downloaded on Nov. 21, 2021).

The analysis looks at deaths among counties based on their 2020 vote. Counties were grouped into five groups with approximately equal population. For analyses that include 2020 vote, Alaskan counties are excluded because Alaska does not report its election results at the county level. The table below provides more details.

This essay benefited greatly from thoughtful comments and consultation with many individuals around Pew Research Center. Jocelyn Kiley, Carroll Doherty and Jeb Bell provided invaluable editorial guidance. Peter Bell and Alissa Scheller contributed their expertise in visualization, Ben Wormald built the map animation, and Reem Nadeem did the digital production. Andrew Daniller provided careful attention to the quality check process, and David Kent’s watchful copy editing eye brought clarity to some difficult concepts.

Lead photo: Kent Nishimura/Los Angeles Times via Getty Images

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