business studies research methodology

Article contents

Qualitative designs and methodologies for business, management, and organizational research.

• Robert P. Gephart Robert P. Gephart Alberta School of Business, University of Alberta
•  and  Rohny Saylors Rohny Saylors Carson College of Business, Washington State University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.230
• Published online: 28 September 2020

Qualitative research designs provide future-oriented plans for undertaking research. Designs should describe how to effectively address and answer a specific research question using qualitative data and qualitative analysis techniques. Designs connect research objectives to observations, data, methods, interpretations, and research outcomes. Qualitative research designs focus initially on collecting data to provide a naturalistic view of social phenomena and understand the meaning the social world holds from the point of view of social actors in real settings. The outcomes of qualitative research designs are situated narratives of peoples’ activities in real settings, reasoned explanations of behavior, discoveries of new phenomena, and creating and testing of theories.

A three-level framework can be used to describe the layers of qualitative research design and conceptualize its multifaceted nature. Note, however, that qualitative research is a flexible and not fixed process, unlike conventional positivist research designs that are unchanged after data collection commences. Flexibility provides qualitative research with the capacity to alter foci during the research process and make new and emerging discoveries.

The first or methods layer of the research design process uses social science methods to rigorously describe organizational phenomena and provide evidence that is useful for explaining phenomena and developing theory. Description is done using empirical research methods for data collection including case studies, interviews, participant observation, ethnography, and collection of texts, records, and documents.

The second or methodological layer of research design offers three formal logical strategies to analyze data and address research questions: (a) induction to answer descriptive “what” questions; (b) deduction and hypothesis testing to address theory oriented “why” questions; and (c) abduction to understand questions about what, how, and why phenomena occur.

The third or social science paradigm layer of research design is formed by broad social science traditions and approaches that reflect distinct theoretical epistemologies—theories of knowledge—and diverse empirical research practices. These perspectives include positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction (interpretive science). There are also scholarly research perspectives that reflect on and challenge or seek to change management thinking and practice, rather than producing rigorous empirical research or evidence based findings. These perspectives include critical research, postmodern research, and organization development.

Three additional issues are important to future qualitative research designs. First, there is renewed interest in the value of covert research undertaken without the informed consent of participants. Second, there is an ongoing discussion of the best style to use for reporting qualitative research. Third, there are new ways to integrate qualitative and quantitative data. These are needed to better address the interplay of qualitative and quantitative phenomena that are both found in everyday discourse, a phenomenon that has been overlooked.

• qualitative methods
• research design
• methods and methodologies
• interpretive induction
• interpretive science
• critical theory
• postmodernism
• organization development

Introduction

Qualitative research uses linguistic symbols and stories to describe and understand actual behavior in real settings (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994 ). Understanding requires describing “specific instances of social phenomena” (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xi) to determine what this behavior means to lay participants and to scientific researchers. This process produces “narratives-non-fiction division that link events to events in storied or dramatic fashion” to uncover broad social science principles at work in specific cases (p. xii).

A research design and/or proposal is often created at the outset of research to act as a guide. But qualitative research is not a rule-governed process and “no one knows” the rules to write memorable and publishable qualitative research (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xxv). Thus qualitative research “is anything but standardized, or, more tellingly, impersonal” (p. xi). Design is emergent and is often created as it is being done.

Qualitative research is also complex. This complexity is addressed by providing a framework with three distinct layers of knowledge creation resources that are assembled during qualitative research: the methods layer, the logic layer, and the paradigmatic layer. Research methods are addressed first because “there is no necessary connection between research strategies and methods of data collection and analysis” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 227). Research methods (e.g., interviews) must be adapted for use with the specific logical strategies and paradigmatic assumptions in mind.

The first, or methods, layer uses qualitative methods to “collect data.” That is, to observe phenomena and record written descriptions of observations, often through field notes. Established methods for description include participant and non-participant observation, ethnography, focus groups, individual interviews, and collection of documentary data. The article explains how established methods have been adapted and used to answer a range of qualitative research questions.

The second, or logic, layer involves selecting a research strategy—a “logic, or set of procedures, for answering research questions” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 18). Research strategies link research objectives, data collection methods, and logics of analysis. The three logical strategies used in qualitative organizational research are inductive logic, deductive logic and abductive logic (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 79). 1 Each logical strategy makes distinct assumptions about the nature of knowledge (epistemology), the nature of being (ontology), and how logical strategies and assumptions are used in data collection and analysis. The task is to describe important methods suitable for each logical strategy, factors to consider when selecting methods (Blaikie, 2010 ), and illustrates how data collection and analysis methods are adapted to ensure for consistency with specific logics and paradigms.

The third, or paradigms, layer of research design addresses broad frameworks and scholarly traditions for understanding research findings. Commitment to a paradigm or research tradition entails commitments to theories, research strategies, and methods. Three paradigms that do empirical research and seek scientific knowledge are addressed first: positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction. Then, three scholarly and humanist approaches that critique conventional research and practice to encourage organizational change are discussed: critical theory and research, postmodern perspectives, and organization development (OD). Paradigms or traditions provide broad scholarly contexts that make specific studies comprehensible and meaningful. Lack of grounding in an intellectual tradition limits the ability of research to contribute: contributions always relate to advancing the state of knowledge in specific unfolding research traditions that also set norms for assessing research quality. The six research designs are explained to show how consistency in design levels can be achieved for each of the different paradigms. Further, qualitative research designs must balance the need for a clear plan to achieve goals with the need for adaptability and flexibility to incorporate insights and overcome obstacles that emerge during research.

Our general goal has been to provide a practical guide to inspire and assist readers to better understand, design, implement, and publish qualitative research. We conclude by addressing future challenges and trends in qualitative research.

The Substance of Research Design

A research design is a written text that can be prepared prior to the start of a research project (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 4) and shared or used as “a private working document.” Figure 1 depicts the elements of a qualitative research design and research process. Interest in a topic or problem leads researchers to pose questions and select relevant research methods to fulfill research purposes. Implementation of the methods requires use of logical strategies in conjunction with paradigms of research to specify concepts, theories, and models. The outcomes, depending on decisions made during research, are scientific knowledge, scholarly (non-scientific) knowledge, or applied knowledge useful for practice.

Figure 1. Elements of qualitative research design.

Research designs describe a problem or research question and explain how to use specific qualitative methods to collect and analyze qualitative data that answer a research question. The purposes of design are to describe and justify the decisions made during the research process and to explain how the research outcomes can be produced. Designs are thus future-oriented plans that specify research activities, connect activities to research goals and objectives, and explain how to interpret the research outcomes using paradigms and theories.

In contrast, a research proposal is “a public document that is used to obtain necessary approvals for a research proposal to proceed” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 4). Research designs are often prepared prior to creating a research proposal, and research proposals often require the inclusion of research designs. Proposals also require greater formality when they are the basis for a legal contract between a researcher and a funding agency. Thus, designs and proposals are mutually relevant and have considerable overlap but are addressed to different audiences. Table 1 provides the specific features of designs and proposals. This discussion focuses on designs.

Table 1. Decisions Necessitated by Research Designs and Proposals

Source: Based on Blaikie ( 2010 ), pp. 12–34.

The “real starting point” for a research design (or proposal) is “the formulation of the research question” (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 17). There are three types of research questions: “what” questions seek descriptions; “why” questions seek answers and understanding; and “how” questions address conditions where certain events occur, underlying mechanisms, and conditions necessary for change interventions (p. 17). It is useful to start with research questions rather than goals, and to explain what the research is intended to achieve (p. 17) in a technical way.

The process of finding a topic and formulating a useful research question requires several considerations (Silverman, 2014 , pp. 31–33, 34–40). Researchers must avoid settings where data collection will be difficult (pp. 31–32); specify an appropriate scope for the topic—neither too wide or too narrow—that can be addressed (pp. 35–36); fit research questions into a relevant theory (p. 39); find the appropriate level of theory to address (p. 42); select appropriate designs and research methods (pp. 42–44); ensure the volume of data can be handled (p. 48); and do an effective literature review (p. 48).

A literature review is an important way to link the proposed research to current knowledge in the field, and to explain what was previously known or what theory suggests to be the case (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 17). Research questions can used to bound and frame the literature review while the literature review often inspires research questions. The review may also provide bases for creating new hypotheses and for answering some of the initial research questions (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 18).

Layers of Research Design

There are three layers of research design. The first layer focuses on research methods for collecting data. The second layer focuses on the logical frameworks used for analyzing data. The third layer focuses on the paradigm used to create a coherent worldview from research methods and logical frameworks.

Layer One: Design as Research Methods

Qualitative research addresses the meanings people have for phenomena. It collects narratives of organizational activity, uses analytical induction to create coherent representations of the truths and meanings in organizational contexts, and then creates explanations of this conduct and its prevalence (Van Maanan, 1998 , pp. xi–xii). Thus qualitative research involves “doing research with words” (Gephart, 2013 , title) in order to describe the linguistic symbols and stories that members use in specific settings.

There are four general methods for collecting qualitative data and creating qualitative descriptions (see Table 2 ). The in-depth case study approach provides a history of an event or phenomenon over time using multiple data sources. Observational strategies use the researcher to observe and describe behavior in actual settings. Interview strategies use a format where a researcher asks questions of an informant. And documentary research collects texts, documents, official records, photographs, and videos as data—formally written or visually recorded evidence that can be replayed and reviewed (Creswell, 2014 , p. 190). These methods are adapted to fit the needs of specific projects.

Table 2. Qualitative Data Collection Methods

The In-Depth Case Study Method

The in-depth case study is a key strategy for qualitative research (Piekkari & Welch, 2012 ). It was the most common qualitative method used during the formative years of the field, from 1956 to 1965 , when 48% of qualitative papers published in the Administrative Science Quarterly used the case study method (Van Maanen, 1998 , p. xix). The case design uses one or more data collection strategies to describe in detail how a single event or phenomenon, selected by a researcher, has changed over time. This provides an understanding of the processes that underlie changes to the phenomenon. In-depth case study methods use observations, documents, records, and interviews that describe the events in the case unfolded and their implications. Case studies contextualize phenomena by studying them in actual situations. They provide rich insights into multiple dimensions of a single phenomenon (Campbell, 1975 ); offer empirical insights into what, how, and why questions related to phenomena; and assist in the creation of robust theory by providing diverse data collected over time (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 36).

Maniha and Perrow ( 1965 ) provide an example of a case study concerned with organizational goal displacement, an important issue in early organizational theorizing that proposed organizations emerge from rational goals. Organizational rationality was becoming questioned at the time that the authors studied a Youth Commission with nine members in a city of 70,000 persons (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ). The organization’s activities were reconstructed from interviews with principals and stakeholders of the organization, minutes from Youth Commission meetings, documents, letters, and newspaper accounts (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ).

The account that emerged from the data analysis is a history of how a “reluctant organization” with “no goals to guide it” was used by other aggressive organizations for their own ends. It ultimately created its own mission (Maniha & Perrow, 1965 ). Thus, an organization that initially lacked rational goals developed a mission through the irrational process of goal slippage or displacement. This finding challenged prevailing thinking at the time.

Observational Strategies

Observational strategies involve a researcher present in a situation who observes and records, the activities and conversations that occur in the setting, usually in written field notes. The three observational strategies in Table 2 —participant observation, ethnography, and systematic self-observation—differ in terms of the role of the researcher and in the data collection approach.

Participant observation . This is one of the earliest qualitative methods (McCall & Simmons, 1969 ). One gains access to a setting and an informant holding an appropriate social role, for example, client, customer, volunteer, or researcher. One then observes and records what occurs in the setting using field notes. Many features or topics in a setting can become a focus for participant observers. And observations can be conducted using continuum of different roles from the complete participant, observer as participant, and participant observer, to the complete observer who observes without participation (Creswell, 2014 , Table 9.2, p. 191).

Ethnography . An ethnography is “a written representation of culture” (Van Maanen, 1988 ) produced after extended participation in a culture. Ethnography is a form of participant observation that focuses on the cultural aspects of the group or organization under study (Van Maanen, 1988 , 2010 ). It involves prolonged and close contact with group members in a role where the observer becomes an apprentice to an informant to learn about a culture (Agar, 1980 ; McCurdy, Spradley, & Shandy, 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

Ethnography produces fine-grained descriptions of a micro-culture, based on in-depth cultural participation (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 , 2016 ). Ethnographic observations seek to capture cultural members’ worldviews (see Perlow, 1997 ; Van Maanen, 1988 ; Watson, 1994 ). Ethnographic techniques for interviewing informants have been refined into an integrated developmental research strategy—“the ethno-semantic method”—for undertaking qualitative research (Spradley, 1979 , 2016 ; Van Maanen, 1981 ). The ethnosemantic method uses a structured approach to uncover and confirm key cultural features, themes, and cultural reasoning processes (McCurdy et al., 2005 , Table 3 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

Systematic Self-Observation . Systematic self-observation (SSO) involves “training informants to observe and record a selected feature of their own everyday experience” (Rodrigues & Ryave, 2002 , p. 2; Rodriguez, Ryave, & Tracewell, 1998 ). Once aware that they are experiencing the target phenomenon, informants “immediately write a field report on their observation” (Rodrigues & Ryave, 2002 , p. 2) describing what was said and done, and providing background information on the context, thoughts, emotions, and relationships of people involved. SSO generates high-quality field notes that provide accurate descriptions of informants’ experiences (pp. 4–5). SSO allows informants to directly provide descriptions of their personal experiences including difficult to capture emotions.

Interview Strategies

Interviews are conversations between researchers and research participants—termed “subjects” in positivist research and informants in “interpretive research.” Interviews can be conducted as individual face-to-face interactions (Creswell, 2014 , p. 190) or by telephone, email, or through computer-based media. Two broad types of interview strategies are (a) the individual interview and (b) the group interview or focus group (Morgan, 1997 ). Interviews elicit informants’ insights into their culture and background information, and obtain answers and opinions. Interviews typically address topics and issues that occur outside the interview setting and at previous times. Interview data are thus reconstructions or undocumented descriptions of action in past settings (Creswell, 2014 , p. 191) that provide descriptions that are less accurate and valid descriptions than direct, real-time observations of settings.

Structured and unstructured interviews. Structured interviews pose a standardized set of fixed, closed-ended questions (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, & Jackson, 2012 ) to respondents whose responses are recorded as factual information. Responses may be forced choice or open ended. However, most qualitative research uses unstructured or partially structured interviews that pose open-ended questions in a flexible order that can be adapted. Unstructured interviews allow for detailed responses and clarification of statements (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012 ; McLeod, 2014 )and the content and format can be tailored to the needs and assumptions of specific research projects (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 40).

The informant interview (Spradley, 1979 ) poses questions to informants to elicit and clarify background information about their culture, and to validate ethnographic observations. In interviews, informants teach the researcher their culture (Spradley, 1979 , pp. 24–39). The informant interview is part of a developmental research sequence (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ) that begins with broad “grand tour” questions that ask an informant to describe an important domain in their culture. The questions later narrow to focus on details of cultural domains and members’ folk concepts. This process uncovers semantic relationships among concepts of members and deeper cultural themes (McCurdy et al., 2005 ; Spradley, 1979 ).

The long interview (McCracken, 1988 ) involves a lengthy, quasi-structured interview sessions with informants to acquire rapid and efficient access to cultural themes and issues in a group. Long interviews differ ethnographic interviews by using a “more efficient and less obtrusive format” (p. 7). This creates a “sharply focused, rapid and highly intense interview process” that avoids indeterminate and redundant questions and pre-empts the need for observation or involvement in a culture. There are four stages in the long interview: (a) review literature to uncover analytical categories and design the interview; (b) review cultural categories to prepare the interview guide; (c) construct the questionnaire; and (d) analyze data to discover analytical categories (p. 30, fig. 1 ).

The active interview is a dynamic process where the researcher and informant co-construct and negotiate interview responses (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995 ). The goal is to uncover the subjective meanings that informants hold for phenomenon, and to understand how meaning is produced through communication. The active approach is common in interpretive, critical, and postmodern research that assumes a negotiated order. For example, Richardson and McKenna ( 2000 ) explored how ex-patriate British faculty members themselves interpreted and explained their expatriate experience. The researchers viewed the interview setting as one where the researchers and informants negotiated meanings between themselves, rather than a setting where prepared questions and answers were shared.

Documentary, Photographic, and Video Records as Data

Documents, records, artifacts, photographs, and video recordings are physically enduring forms of data that are separable from their producers and provide mute evidence with no inherent meaning until they are read, written about, and discussed (Hodder, 1994 , p. 393). Records (e.g., marriage certificate) attest to a formal transaction, are associated with formal governmental institutions, and may have legally restricted access. In contrast, documents are texts prepared for personal reasons with fewer legal restrictions but greater need for contextual interpretation. Several approaches to documentary and textual data analysis have been developed (see Table 3 ). Documents that researchers have found useful to collect include public documents and minutes of meetings; detailed transcripts of public hearings; corporate and government press releases; annual reports and financial documents; private documents such as diaries of informants; and news media reports.

Photographs and videos are useful for capturing “accurate” visual images of physical phenomena (Ray & Smith, 2012 ) that can be repeatedly reexamined and used as evidence to substantiate research claims (LeBaron, Jarzabkowski, Pratt, & Fetzer, 2018 ). Photos taken from different positions in space may also reveal different features of phenomena. Videos show movement and reveal activities as processes unfolding over time and space. Both photos and videos integrate and display the spatiotemporal contexts of action.

Layer Two: Design as Logical Frameworks

The second research design layer links data collection and analysis methods (Tables 2 and 3 ) to three logics of enquiry that answer specific questions: inductive, deductive, and abductive logical strategies (see Table 4 ). Each logical strategy focuses on producing different types of knowledge using distinctive research principles, processes, and types of research questions they can address.

Table 3. Data Analysis and Integrated Data Collection and Analysis Strategies

Table 4. Logical Strategies for Answering Qualitative Research Questions with Evidence

Based in part on Blaikie ( 1993 ), ch. 5 & 6; Blaikie ( 2010 ), p. 84, table 4.1

The Inductive Strategy

Induction is the scientific method for many scholars (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 134), and an essential logic for qualitative management research (Pratt, 2009 , p. 856). Inductive strategies ask “what” questions to explore a domain to discover unknown features of a phenomenon (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 83). There are four stages to the inductive strategy: (a) observe and record all facts without selection or anticipating their importance; (b) analyze, compare, and classify facts without employing hypotheses; (c) develop generalizations inductively based on the analyses; and (d) subject generalizations to further testing (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 137).

Inductive research assumes a real world outside human thought that can be directly sensed and described (Blaikie, 2010 ). Principles of inductive research reflect a realist and objectivist ontology. The selection, definition, and measurement of characteristics to be studied are developed from an objective, scientific point of view. Facts about organizational features need to be obtained using unbiased measurement. Further, the elimination method is used to find “the characteristics present in all the positive cases, which are absent in all the negative cases, and which vary in appropriate degrees” (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 135). This requires data collection methods that provide unbiased evidence of the objective facts without pre-supposing their importance.

Induction can establish limited generalizations about phenomena based solely on the observations collected. Generalizations need to be based on the entire sample of data, not on selected observations from large data sets, to establish their validity. The scope of generalization is limited to the sample of data itself. Induction creates evidence to increase our confidence in a conclusion, but the conclusions do not logically follow from premises (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 164). Indeed, inferences from induction cannot be extended beyond the original set of observations and no logical or formal process exists to establish the universality of inferences.

Key data collection methods for inductive designs include observational strategies that allow the researcher to view behavior without making a priori hypotheses, to describe behavior that occurs “naturally” in settings, and to record non-impressionistic descriptions of behavior. Interviews can also elicit descriptions of settings and behavior for inductive qualitative research. Data analysis methods need to describe actual interactions in real settings including discourse among members. These methods include ethnosemantic analysis to uncover key terms and validate actual meanings used by members; analyses of conversational practices that show how meaning is negotiated through sequential turn taking in discourse; and grounded theory-based concept coding and theory development that use the constant comparative method.

Facts or descriptions of events can be compared to one another and generalizations can be made about the world using induction (Blaikie, 2010 ). Outcomes from inductive analysis include descriptions of features in a limited domain of social action that are inferred to exist in other similar settings. Propositions and broader insights can be developed inductively from these descriptions.

The Deductive Strategy

Deductive logic (Blaikie, 1993 , 2010 ) addresses “why” questions to explain associations between concepts that represent phenomena of interest. Researchers can use induction, abduction, or any means, to develop then test the hypotheses to see if they are valid. Hypotheses that are not rejected are temporarily corroborated. The outcomes from deduction are tested hypotheses. Researchers can thus be very creative in hypothesis construction but they cannot discover new phenomena with deduction that is based only on phenomena known in advance (Blaikie, 2010 ). And there is also no purely logical or mechanical process to establish “the validity of [inductively constructed] universal statements from a set of singular statements” from which deductive hypotheses were formed (Hempel, 1966 , p. 15 cited in Blaikie, 1993 , p. 140).

The deductive strategy uses a realist and objectivist ontology and imitates natural science methods. Useful data collection methods include observation, interviewing, and collection of documents that contain facts. Deduction addresses the assumedly objective features of settings and interactions. Appropriate data analysis methods include content coding to identify different types, features, and frequencies of observed phenomena; grounded theory coding and analytical induction to create categories in data, determine how categories are interrelated, and induce theory from observations; and pattern recognition to compare current data to prior models and samples. Content analysis and non-parametric statistics can be used to quantify qualitative data and make it more amenable to analysis, although quantitative analysis of qualitative data is not, strictly speaking, qualitative research (Gephart, 2004 ).

The Abductive Strategy

Abduction is “the process used to produce social scientific accounts of social life by drawing on the concepts and meanings used by social actors, and the activities in which they engage” (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 176). Abductive reasoning assumes that the socially meaningful world is the world experienced by members. The first abductive task is to discover the insider view that is basic to the actions of social actors (p. 176) by uncovering the subjective meanings held by social actors. Subjective meaning (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ) refers to the meaning that actions hold for the actors themselves and that they can express verbally. Subjective meaning is not inexpressible ideas locked in one’s mind. Abduction starts with lay descriptions of social life, then moves to technical, scientific descriptions of social life (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 177) (see Table 4 ). Abduction answers “what” questions with induction, why questions with deduction, and “how” questions with hypothesized processes that explain how, and under what conditions, phenomena occur. Abduction involves making a logical leap that infers an explanatory process to explain an outcome in an oscillating logic. Deductive, inductive, and inferential processes move recursively from actors’ accounts to social science accounts and back again in abduction (Gephart, 2018 ). This process enables all theory and second-order scientific concepts to be grounded in actors’ first-order meanings.

The abductive strategy contains four layers: (a) everyday concepts and meanings of actors, used for (b) social interaction, from which (c) actors provide accounts, from which (d) social scientific descriptions are made, or theories are generated and applied, to interpret phenomena (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 177). The multifaceted research process, described in Table 4 , requires locating and comprehending members’ important everyday concepts and theories before observing or creating disruptions that force members to explain the unstated knowledge behind their action. The researcher then integrates members’ first-order concepts into a general, second-order scientific theory that makes first-order understandings recoverable.

Abduction emerged from Weber’s interpretive sociology ( 1978 ) and Peirce’s ( 1936 ) philosophy. But Alfred Schutz ( 1973a , 1973b ) is the contemporary scholar who did the most to extend our understanding of abduction, although he never used the term “abduction” (Blaikie, 1993 , 2010 ; Gephart, 2018 ). Schutz conceived abduction as an approach to verifiable interpretive knowledge that is scientific and rigorous (Blaikie, 1993 ; Gephart, 2018 ). Abduction is appropriate for research that seeks to go beyond description to explanation and prediction (Blaikie, 1993 , p. 163) and discovery (Gephart, 2018 ). It employs an interpretive ontology (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ) and social constructionist epistemology (Berger & Luckmann, 1966 ), using qualitative methods to discover “why people do what they do” (Blaikie, 1993 ).

Dynamic data collection methods are needed for abductive research to capture descriptions of interactions in actual settings and their meanings to members. Observational and interview approaches that elicit members’ concepts and theories are particularly relevant to abductive understanding (see Table 2 ). Data analysis methods must analyze situated, first-order (common sense) discourse as it unfolds in real settings and then systematically develop second-order concepts or theories from data. Relevant approaches to produce and validate findings include ethnography, ethnomethodology, and grounded theorizing (see Table 3 ). The combination of what, why, and how questions used in abduction produces a broader understanding of phenomena than do what and why deductive and inductive questions.

Layer Three: Paradigms of Research

Scholarly paradigms integrate methods, logics, and intellectual worldviews into coherent theoretical perspectives and form the most abstract level of research design. Six paradigms are widely used in management research (Burrell & Morgan, 1979 ; Cunliffe, 2011 ; Gephart, 2004 , 2013 ; Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ; Hassard, 1993 ). The first three perspectives—positivism, interpretive induction, and interpretive abduction—build on logics of design and seek to produce rigorous empirical research that constitutes evidence (see Table 5 ). Three additional perspectives pursue philosophical, critical, and practical knowledge: critical theory, postmodernism, and organization development (see Table 6 ). Tables 5 and 6 describe important features of each research design to show similarities and differences in the processes through which theoretical meaning is bestowed on research results in management and organization studies.

Table 5. Paradigms, Logical Strategies, and Methodologies for Empirical Research

Sources: Based on and adapted and extended from Blaikie ( 1993 , pp. 137, 145, & 152); Blaikie ( 2010 , Table 4.1, p. 84); Gephart ( 2013 , Table 9.1, p. 291) and Gephart ( 2018 , Table 3.1, pp. 38–39).

Table 6. Alternative Paradigms, Logical Strategies, and Methodologies

Based in part on Gephart ( 2004 , 2013 , 2018 ).

The Positivist Approach

The qualitative positivist approach makes assumptions equivalent to those of quantitative research (Gephart, 2004 , 2018 ). It assumes the world is objectively describable and comprehensible using inductive and deductive logics. And rigor is important and achieved by reliability, validity, and generalizability of findings (Kirk & Miller, 1986 ; Malterud, 2001 ). Qualitative positivism mimics natural science logics and methods using data recorded as words and talk rather than numerals.

Positivist research (Bitektine, 2008 ; Su, 2018 ) starts with a hypothesis. This can, but need not, be based in data or inductive theory. The research process, aimed at publication in peer-reviewed journals, requires researchers to (a) identify variables to measure, (b) develop operational definitions of the variables, (c) measure (describe) the variables and their inter-relationships, (d) pose hypotheses to test relationships among variables, then (e) compare observations to hypotheses for testing (Blaikie, 2010 ). When data are consistent with theory, theory passes the test. Otherwise the theory fails. This theory is also assessed for its logical correctness and value for knowledge. The positivist approach can assess deductive and inductive generalizations and provide evidence concerning why something occurs—if proposed hypotheses are not rejected.

Positivists view qualitative research as highly subject to biases that must be prevented to ensure rigor, and 23 methodological steps are recommended to enhance rigor and prevent bias (Gibbert & Ruigrok, 2010 , p. 720). Replicability is another concern because methodology descriptions in qualitative publications “insufficiently describe” how methods are used (Lee, Mitchell, & Sablynski, 1999 , p. 182) and thereby prevent replication. To ensure replicability, a qualitative “article’s description of the method must be sufficiently detailed to allow a reader . . . to replicate that reported study either in a hypothetical or actual manner.”

Qualitative research allows positivists to observe naturally unfolding behavior in real settings and allow “the real world” of work to inform research and theory (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2004 ). Encounters with the actual world provide insights into meaning construction by members that cannot be captured with outsider (etic) approaches. For example, past quantitative research provided inconsistent findings on the importance of pre- and post-recruitment screening interviews for job choices of recruits. A deeper investigation was thus designed to examine how recruitment impacts job selection (Rynes, Bretz, & Gerhart, 1991 ). To do so, students undergoing recruitment were asked to “tell us in their own words” how their recruiting and decision processes unfolded (Rynes et al., 1991 , p. 399). Using qualitative evidence, the researchers found that, in contrast to quantitative findings, “people do make choices based on how they are treated” (p. 509), and the choices impact recruitment outcomes. Rich descriptions of actual behavior can disconfirm quantitative findings and produce new findings that move the field forward.

An important limitation of positivism is its common emphasis on outsiders’ or scientific observers’ objective conceptions of the world. This limits the attention positivist research gives to members’ knowledge and allows positivist research to impose outsiders’ meanings on members’ everyday behavior, leading to a lack of understanding of what the behavior means to members. Another limitation is that no formal, logical, or proven techniques exist to assess the strength of “relationships” among qualitative variables, although such assessments can be formally done using well-formed quantitative data and techniques. Thus, qualitative positivists often provide ambiguous or inexplicit quantitative depictions of variable relations (e.g., “strong relationship”). Alternatively, the analysts quantify qualitative data by assigning numeric codes to categories (Greckhamer, Misngyi, Elms, & Lacey, 2008 ), using non-parametric statistics, or quantitative content analysis (Sonpar & Golden-Biddle, 2008 ) to create numerals that depict associations among variables.

An illustrative example of positivist research . Cole ( 1985 ) studied why and how organizations change their working structures from bureaucratic forms to small, self-supervised work teams that allow for worker participation in shop floor activities. Cole found that existing research on workplace change focused on the micropolitical level of organizations. He hypothesized that knowledge could be advanced differently, by examining the macropolitical change in industries or nations. Next, a testable conclusion was deduced: a macro analysis of the politics of change can better predict the success of work team implementation, measured as the spread of small group work structures, than an examination of the micropolitics of small groups ( 1985 ). Three settings were selected for the research: Japan, Sweden, and the United States. Japanese data were collected from company visits and interviews with employment officials and union leaders. Swedish documentary data on semiautonomous work groups were used and supplemented by interviews at Volvo and Saab, and prior field research in Sweden. U.S. data were collected through direct observations and a survey of early quality circle adopters.

Extensive change was observed in Sweden and Japan but changes to small work groups were limited in the United States (Cole, 1985 ). This conclusion was verified using records of the experiences of the three nations in work reform, compared across four dimensions: timing and scope of changes, managerial incentives to innovate, characteristics of mobilization, and political dimensions of change. Data revealed the United States had piecemeal experimentation and resistance to reform through the 1970s; diffusion emerged in Japan in the early 1960s and became extensive; and Swedish workplace reform started in the 1960s and was widely and rapidly diffused.

Cole then answered the questions of “why” and “how” the change occurred in some countries but not others. Regarding why Japanese and Swedish managers were motivated to introduce workplace change due to perceived managerial problems and the changing national labor market. Differences in the political processes also influenced change. Management, labor, and government interest in workplace change was evident in Japan and Sweden but not in the United States where widespread resistance occurred. As to how, the change occurred through macropolitical processes (Cole, 1985 , p. 120), specifically, the commitment of the national business leadership to the change and whether or not the change was contested or uncontested by labor impacted the adoption of change. Organizational change usually occurs through broad macropolitical processes, hence “the importance of macro-political variables in explaining these outcomes” (p. 122).

Interpretive Induction

Two streams of qualitative research claim the label of “interpretive research” in management and organization studies. The first stream, interpretive induction, emphasizes induction as its primary logical strategy (e.g., Locke, 2001 , 2002 ; Pratt, 2009 ). It assumes a “real world” that is inherently objective but interpreted through subjective lenses, hence different people can perceive or report different things. This research is interpretive because it addresses the meanings and interpretations people give to organizational phenomena, and how this meaning is provided and used. Interpretive induction contributes to scientific knowledge by providing empirical descriptions, generalizations, and low-level theories about specific contexts based on thick descriptions of members’ settings and interactions (first-order understandings) as data.

The interpretive induction paradigm addresses “what” questions that describe and explain the existence and features of phenomena. It seeks to uncover the subjective, personal knowledge that subjects have of the objective world and does so by creating descriptive accounts of the activities of organizational members. Interpretive induction creates inductive theories based on limited samples that provide low-scope, abstract theory. Limitations (Table 5 ) include the fact that inductive generalizations are limited to the sample used for induction and need to be subjected to additional tests and comparisons for substantiation. Second, research reports often fail to provide details to allow replication of the research. Third, formal methods for assessing the accuracy and validity of results and findings are limited. Fourth, while many features of scientific research are evident in interpretive induction research, the research moves closer to humanistic knowledge than to science when the basic assumptions of inductive analysis are relaxed—a common occurrence.

An illustrative example of interpretive induction research . Adler and Adler ( 1988 , 1998 ) undertook a five-year participant-observation study of a college basketball program (Adler, 1998 , p. 32). They sought to “examine the development of intense loyalty in one organization.” Intense loyalty evokes “devotional commitment of . . . (organizational) members through a subordination that sometime borders on subservience” (p. 32). The goal was to “describe and analyze the structural factors that emerged as most related” to intense loyalty (p. 32).

The researchers divided their roles. Peter Adler was the active observer and “expert” who undertook direct observations while providing counsel to players (p. 33). Patricia Adler took the peripheral role of “wife” and debriefed the observer. Two research questions were posed: (a) “what” kinds of organizational characteristics foster intense loyalty? (b) “how” do organizations with intense loyalty differ structurally from those that lack intense loyalty?

The first design stage (Table 5 ) recorded unbiased observations in extensive field notes. Detailed “life history” accounts were obtained from 38 team members interviewed (Adler & Adler, 1998 , p. 33). Then analytical induction and the constant comparative method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967 ) were used to classify and compare observations (p. 33). Once patterns emerged, informants were questioned about variations in patterns (p. 34) to develop “total patterns” (p. 34) reflecting the collective belief system of the group. This process required a “careful and rigorous means of data collection and analysis” that was “designed to maximize both the reliability and validity of our findings” (p. 34). The study found five conceptual elements were essential to the development of intense loyalty: domination, identification, commitment, integration, and goal alignment (p. 35).

The “what” question was answered by inducing a generalization (stage 3): paternalistic organizations with charismatic leadership seek people who “fit” the organization’s style and these people require extensive socialization to foster intense loyalty. This description contrasts with rational bureaucratic organizations that seek people who fit specific, generally known job descriptions and require limited socialization (p. 46). The “how” question is answered by inductive creation of another generalization: organizations that control the extra-organizational activities of members are more likely to evoke intense loyalty by forcing members to subordinate all other interests to those of the organization (p. 46).

The Interpretive Abduction Approach

The second stream of interpretive research—interpretive abduction—produces scientific knowledge using qualitative methods (Gephart, 2018 ). The approach assumes that commonsense knowledge is foundational to how actors know the world. Abductive theory is scientifically built from, and refers to, everyday life meanings, in contrast to positivist and interpretive induction research that omits concern with the worldview of members. Further, interpretive abduction produces second-order or scientific theory and concepts from members’ first-order commonsense concepts and meanings (Gephart, 2018 , p. 34; Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ).

The research process, detailed in Table 5 (process and stages), focuses on collecting thick descriptive data on organizations, identifying and interpreting first-order lay concepts, and creating abstract second-order technical constructs of science. The second-order concepts describe the first-order principles and terms social actors use to organize their experience. They compose scientific concepts that form a theoretical system to objectively describe, predict, and explain social organization (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35). This requires researchers to understand the subjective view of the social actors they study, and to develop second-order theory based on actors’ subjective meanings. Subjective meaning can be shared with others through language use and communication and is not private knowledge.

A central analytical task for interpretive abduction is creating second-order, ideal-type models of social roles, motives, and interactions that describe the behavioral trajectories of typical actors. Ideal-type models can be objectively compared to one another and are the special devices that social science requires to address differences between social phenomena and natural phenomena (Schutz, 1973a , 1973b ). The models, once built, are refined to preserve actors’ subjective meanings, to be logically consistent, and to present human action from the actor’s point of view. Researchers can then vary and compare the models to observe the different outcomes that emerge. Scientific descriptions can then be produced, and theories can be created. Interpretive abduction (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35) allows one to addresses what, why, and how questions in a holistic manner, to describe relationships among scientific constructs, and to produce “empirically ascertainable” and verifiable relations among concepts (Schutz, 1973b , p. 65) that are logical, hold practical meaning to lay actors, and provide abstract, objective meaning to interpretive scientists (Gephart, 2018 , p. 35). Abduction produces knowledge about socially shared realities by observing interactions, uncovering members’ first-order meanings, and then developing technical second-order or scientific accounts from lay accounts.

Interpretive abduction (Gephart, 2018 ) uses well-developed methods to create, refine, test, and verify second-order models, and it provides well-developed tools to support technical, second-level analyses. Research using the interpretive abduction approach includes a study of how technology change impacts sales automobile practices (Barley, 2015 ) and an investigation study of how abduction was used to develop new prescription drugs (Dunne & Dougherty, 2016 ).

An illustrative example of the interpretive abduction approach . Perlow ( 1997 ) studied time management among software engineers facing a product launch deadline. Past research verified the widespread belief that long working hours for staff are necessary for organizational success. This belief has adversely impacted work life and led to the concept of a “time bind” faced by professionals (Hochschild, 1997 ). One research question that subsequently emerged was, “what underlies ‘the time bind’ experienced by engineers who face constant deadlines and work interruptions?” (Perlow, 1997 , p. xvii). This is an inductive question about the causes and consequences of long working hours not answered in prior research that is hard to address using induction or deduction. Perlow then explored assumption underlying the hypothesis, supported by lay knowledge and management literature, that even if long working hours cause professionals to destroy their life style, long work hours “further the goals of our organizations” and “maximize the corporation’s bottom line” (Perlow, 1997 , p. 2).

The research commenced (Table 5 , step 1) when Perlow gained access to “Ditto,” a leader in implementing flexible work policies (Perlow, 1997 , p. 141) and spent nine months doing participant observation four days a week. Perlow collected descriptive data by walking around to observe and converse with people, attended meetings and social events, interviewed engineers at work and home and spouses at home, asked participants to record activities they undertook on selected working days (Perlow, 1997 , p. 143), and made “thousands of pages of field notes” (p. 146) to uncover trade-offs between work and home life.

Perlow ( 1997 , pp. 146–147) analyzed first-order concepts uncovered through his observations and interviews from 17 stories he wrote for each individual he had studied. The stories described workstyles, family lives, and traits of individuals; provided objective accounts of subjective meanings each held for work and home; offered background information; and highlighted first-order concepts. Similarities and differences in informant accounts were explored with an empirically grounded scheme for coding observations into categories using grounded theory processes (Gioia, Corley, & Hamilton, 2012 ). The process allowed Perlow to find key themes in stories that show work patterns and perceptions of the requirements of work success, and to create ideal-type models of workers (step 3). Five stories were selected for detailed analysis because they reveal important themes Perlow ( 1997 , p. 147). For example, second-order, ideal-type models of different “roles” were constructed in step 3 including the “organizational superstar” (pp. 15–21) and “ideal female employee” (pp. 22–32) based on first-order accounts of members. The second-order ideal-type scientific models were refined to include typical motives. The models were compared to one another (step 4) to describe and understand how the actions of these employee types differed from other employee types and how these variations produced different outcomes for each trajectory of action (steps 4 and 5).

Perlow ( 1997 ) found that constant help-seeking led engineers to interrupt other engineers to get solutions to problems. This observation led to the abductively developed hypothesis that interruptions create a time crisis atmosphere for engineers. Perlow ( 1997 ) then created a testable, second-order ideal-type (scientific) model of “the vicious working cycle” (p. 96), developed from first-order data, that explains the productivity problems that the firm (and other research and development firms)—commonly face. Specifically, time pressure → crisis mentality → individual heroics → constant interruptions of others’ work to get help → negative consequences for individual → negative consequences for the organization.

Perlow ( 1997 ) then tested the abductive hypothesis that the vicious work cycle caused productivity problems (stage 5). To do so, the vicious work cycle was transformed into a virtuous cycle using scheduling quiet times to prevent work interruptions: relaxed work atmosphere → individuals focus on own work completion → few interruptions → positive consequences for individual and organization. To test the hypothesis, an experiment was conducted (research process 2 in Table 5 ) with engineers given scheduled quiet times each morning with no interruptions. The experiment was successful: the project deadline was met. The hypothesis about work interruptions and the false belief that long hours are needed for success were supported (design stage 6). Unfortunately, the change was not sustained and engineers reverted to work interruptions when the experiment ended.

There are three additional qualitative approaches used in management research that pursue objectives other than producing empirical findings and developing or testing theories. These include critical theory and research, postmodernism, and change intervention research (see Table 6 ).

The Critical Theory and Research Approach

The term “critical” has many meanings including (a) critiques oriented to uncovering ideological manifestations in social relations (Gephart, 2013 , p. 284); (b) critiques of underlying assumptions of theories; and (c) critique as self-reflection that reflexively encapsulates the investigator (Morrow, 1994 , p. 9). Critical theory and critical management studies bring these conceptions of critical to bear on organizations and employees.

Critical theory and research extend the theories Karl Marx, and the Frankfurt School in Germany (Gephart & Kulicki, 2008 ; Gephart & Pitter, 1995 ; Habermas, 1973 , 1979 ; Morrow, 1994 ; Offe, 1984 , 1985 ). Critical theory and research assume that social science research differs from natural science research because social facts are human creations and social phenomena cannot be controlled as readily as natural phenomena (Gephart, 2013 , p. 284; Morrow, 1994 , p. 9). As a result, critical theory often uses a historical approach to explore issues that arise from the fundamental contradictions of capitalism. Critical research explores ongoing changes within capitalist societies and organizations, and analyzes the objective structures that constrain human imagination and action (Morrow, 1994 ). It seeks to uncover the contradictions of advanced capitalism that emerge from the fundamental contradiction of capitalism: owners of capital have the right to appropriate the surplus value created by workers. This basic contradiction produces further contradictions that become sources of workplace oppression and resistance that create labor issues. Thus contradictions reveal how power creates consciousness (Poutanen & Kovalainen, 2010 ). Critical reflection is used to de-reify taken-for-granted structures that create power inequities and to motivate resistance and critique and escape from dominant structures (see Table 6 ).

Critical management studies build on critical theory in sociology. It seeks to transform management and provide alternatives to mainstream theory (Adler, Forbes, & Willmott, 2007 ). The focus is “the social injustice and environmental destruction of the broader social and economic systems” served by conventional, capitalist managers (Adler et al., 2007 , p. 118). Critical management research examines “the systemic corrosion of moral responsibility when any concern for people or for the environment . . . requires justification in terms of its contribution to profitable growth” (p. 4). Critical management studies goes beyond scientific skepticism to undertake a radical critique of socially divisive and environmentally destructive patterns and structures (Adler et al., 2007 , p. 119). These studies use critical reflexivity to uncover reified capitalist structures that allow certain groups to dominate others. Critical reflection is used to de-reify and challenge the facts of social life that are seen as immutable and inevitable (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 , p. 34). The combination of dialogical inquiry, critical reflection, and a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and data are common in this research (Gephart, 2013 , p. 285). Some researchers use deductive logics to build falsifiable theories while other researchers do grounded theory building (Blaikie, 2010 ). Validity of critical research is assessed as the capability the research has to produce critical reflexivity that comprehends dominant ideologies and transforms repressive structures into democratic processes and institutions (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ).

An illustrative example of critical research . Barker ( 1998 , p. 130) studied “concertive control” in self-managed work teams in a small manufacturing firm. Concertive control refers to how workers collaborate to engage in self-control. Barker sought to understand how control practices in the self-managed team setting, established to allow workers greater control over their work, differed from previous bureaucratic processes. Interviews, observations, and documents were used as data sources. The resultant description of work activities and control shows that rather than allowing workers greater control, the control process enacted by workers themselves became stronger: “The iron cage becomes stronger” and almost invisible “to the workers it incarcerates” (Barker, 1998 , p. 155). This study shows how traditional participant observation methods can be used to uncover and contest reified structures and taken-for-granted truths, and to reveal the hidden managerial interests served.

Postmodern Perspectives

The postmodern perspective (Boje, Gephart, & Thatchenkery, 1996 ) is based in philosophy, the humanities, and literary criticism. Postmodernism, as an era, refers to the historical stage following modernity that evidences a new cultural worldview and style of intellectual production (Boje et al., 1996 ; Jameson, 1991 ; Rosenau, 1992 ). Postmodernism offers a humanistic approach to reconceptualize our experience of the social world in an era where it is impossible to establish any foundational underpinnings for knowledge. The postmodern perspective assumes that realities are contradictory in nature and value-laden (Gephart & Richardson, 2008 ; Rosenau, 1992 , p. 6). It addresses the values and contradictions of contemporary settings, how hidden power operates, and how people are categorized (Gephart, 2013 ). Postmodernism also challenges the idea that scientific research is value free, and asks “whose values are served by research?”

Postmodern essays depart from concerns with systematic, replicable research methods and designs (Calas, 1987 ). They seek instead to explore the values and contradictions of contemporary organizational life (Gephart, 2013 , p. 289). Research reports have the character of essays that seek to reconceptualize how people experience the world (Martin, 1990 ; Rosenau, 1992 ) and to disrupt this experience by producing “reading effects” that unsettle a community (Calas & Smircich, 1991 ).

Postmodernism examines intertextual relations—how texts become embedded in other texts—rather than causal relations. It assumes there are no singular realities or truths, only multiple realities and multiple truths, none of which are superior to other truths (Gephart, 2013 ). Truth is conceived as the outcome of language use in a context where power relations and multiple realities exist.

From a methodological view, postmodern research tends to focus on discourse: texts and talk. Data collection (in so far as it occurs) focuses on records of discourse—texts of spoken and written verbal communication (Fairclough, 1992 ). Use of formal or official records including recordings, texts and transcripts is common. Analytically, scholars tend to use critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 1992 ), narrative analysis (Czarniawska, 1998 ; Ganzin, Gephart, & Suddaby, 2014 ), rhetorical analysis (Culler, 1982 ; Gephart, 1988 ; McCloskey, 1984 ) and deconstruction (Calais & Smircich, 1991 ; Gephart, 1988 ; Kilduff, 1993 ; Martin, 1990 ) to understand how categories are shaped through language use and come to privilege or subordinate individuals.

Postmodernism challenges models of knowledge production by showing how political discourses produce totalizing categories, showing how categorization is a tool for social control, and attempting to create opportunities for alternative representations of the world. It thus provides a means to uncover and expose discursive features of domination, subordination, and resistance in society (Locke & Golden-Biddle, 2004 ).

An illustrative example of postmodern research . Martin ( 1990 ) deconstructed a conference speech by a company president. The president was so “deeply concerned” about employee well-being and involvement at work that he encouraged a woman manager “to have her Caesarian yesterday” so she could participate in an upcoming product launch. Martin deconstructs the story to reveal the suppression of gender conflict in the dialogue and how this allows gender conflict and subjugation to continue. This research established the existence of important domains of organizational life, such as tacit gender conflict, that have not been adequately addressed and explored the power dynamics therein.

The Organization Development Approach

OD involves a planned and systematic diagnosis and intervention into an organizational system, supported by top management, with the intent of improving the organization’s effectiveness (Beckhard, 1969 ; Palmer, Dunford, & Buchanan, 2017 , p. 282). OD research (termed “clinical research” by Schein, 1987 ) is concerned with changing attitudes and behaviors to instantiate fundamental values in organizations. OD research often follows the general process of action research (Lalonde, 2019 ) that involves working with actors in an organization to help improve the organization. OD research involves a set of stages the OD practitioner (the leader of the intervention) uses: (a) problem identification; (b) consultation between OD practitioner and client; (c) data collection and problem diagnosis; (d) feedback; (e) joint problem diagnosis; (f) joint action planning; (g) change actions; and (h) further data gathering to move recursively to a refined step 1.

An illustrative example of the organization development approach . Numerous OD techniques exist to help organizations change (Palmer et al., 2017 ). The OD approach is illustrated here by the socioeconomic approach to management (SEAM) (Buono & Savall, 2007 ; Savall, 2007 ). SEAM provides a scientific approach to organizational intervention consulting that integrates qualitative information on work practices and employee and customer needs (socio) with quantitative and financial performance measures (economics). The socioeconomic intervention process commences by uncovering dysfunctions that require attention in an organization. SEAM assumes that organizations produce both (a) explicit benefits and costs and (b) hidden benefits and costs. Hidden costs refer to economic implications of organizational dysfunctions (Worley, Zardet, Bonnet, & Savall, 2015 , pp. 28–29). These include problems in working conditions; work organization; communication, co-ordination, and co-operation; time management; integrated training; and strategy implementation (Savall, Zardet, & Bonnet, 2008 , p. 33). Explicit costs are emphasized in management decision-making but hidden costs are ignored. Yet hidden costs from dysfunctions often greatly outstrip explicit costs.

For example, a fishing company sought to protect its market share by reducing the price and quality of products, leading to the purchase of poor-quality fish (Savall et al., 2008 , pp. 31–32). This reduced visible costs by €500,000. However, some customers stopped purchasing because of the lower-quality product, producing a loss of sales of €4,000,000 in revenue or an overall drop in economic performance of €3,500,000. The managers then changed their strategy to focus on health and quality. They implemented the SEAM approach, assessed the negative impact of the hidden costs on value added and revenue received, and purchased higher-quality fish. Visible costs (expenses) increased by €1,000,000 due to the higher cost for a better-quality product, but the improved quality (performance) cut the hidden costs by increasing loyalty and increased sales by €5,000,000 leaving an increased profit of €4,000,000.

SEAM allows organizations to uncover hidden costs in their operations and to convert these costs into value-added human potential through a process termed “qualimetrics.” Qualimetrics assesses the nature of hidden costs and organizational dysfunctions, develops estimates of the frequencies and amounts of hidden costs in specific organizational domains, and develops actions to reduce the hidden costs and thereby release additional value added for the organization (Savall & Zardet, 2011 ). The qualimetric process is participative and involves researchers who use observations, interviews and focus groups of employees to (a) describe, qualitatively, the dysfunctions experienced at work (qualitative data); (b) estimate the frequencies with which dysfunctions occur (quantitative data); and (c) estimate the costs of each dysfunction (financial data). Then, strategic change actions are developed to (a) identify ways to reduce or overcome the dysfunction, (b) estimate how frequently the dysfunction can be remedied, and (c) estimate the overall net costs of removing the hidden costs to enhance value added. The economic balance is then assessed for changes to transform the hidden costs into value added.

OD research creates actionable knowledge from practice (Lalonde, 2019 ). OD intervention consultants use multistep processes to change organizations that are flexible practices not fixed research designs. OD plays an important role in developing evidence-based practices to improve organizational functioning and performance. Worley et al. ( 2015 ) provide a detailed example of the large-scale implementation of the SEAM OD approach in a large, international firm.

Here we discuss implication of qualitative research designs for covert research, reporting qualitative work and novel integrations of qualitative and quantitative work.

Covert Research

University ethics boards require researchers who undertake research with human participants to obtain informed consent from the participants. Consent requires that all participants must be informed of details of the research procedure in which they will be involved and any risks of participation. Researchers must protect subjects’ identities, offer safeguards to limit risks, and insure informant anonymity. This consent must be obtained in the form of a signed agreement from the participant, obtained prior to the commencement of research observations (McCurdy et al., 2005 , pp. 29–32).

Covert research that fails to fully disclose research purposes or practices to participants, or that is otherwise deceptive by design or tacit practice, has long been considered “suspect” in the field (Graham, 1995 ; Roulet, Gill, Stenger, & Gill, 2017 ). This is changing. Research methodologists have shown that the over/covert dimension is a continuum, not a dichotomy, and that unintended covert elements occur in many situations (Roulet et al., 2017 ). Thus all qualitative observation involves some degree of deception due practical constraints on doing observations since it is difficult to do fully overt research, particularly in observational contexts with many people, and to gain advance consent from everyone in the organization one might encounter.

There are compelling benefits to covert research. It can provide insights not possible if subjects are fully informed of the nature or existence of the research. For example, the year-long, covert observational study of an asylum as a “total institution” (Goffman, 1961 ) showed how ineffective the treatment of mental illness was at the time. This opened the field of mental health to social science research (Roulet et al., 2017 , p. 493). Covert research can also provide access to institutions that researchers would otherwise be excluded from, including secretive and secret organizations (p. 492). This could allow researchers to collect data as an insider and to better see and experience the world from members’ perspective. It could also reduce “researcher demand effects” that occur when informants obscure their normal behavior to conform to research expectations. Thus, the inclusion of covert research data collection in research designs and proposals is an emerging trend and realistic possibility. Ethics applications can be developed that allow for aspects of covert research, and observations in many public settings do not require informed consent.

The Appropriate Style for Reporting Qualitative Work

The appropriate style for reporting qualitative research has become an issue of concern. For example, editors of the influential Academy of Management Journal have noted the emergence of an “AMJ style” for qualitative work (Bansal & Corley, 2011 , p. 234). They suggest that all qualitative work should use this style so that qualitative research can “benefit” from: “decades of refinement in the style of quantitative work.” The argument is that most scholars can assess the empirical and theoretical contributions of quantitative work but find it difficult to do so for qualitative research. It is easier for quantitatively trained editors and scholars “to spot the contribution of qualitative work that mimics the style of quantitative research.” Further, “the majority of papers submitted to . . . AMJ tend to subscribe to the paradigm of normal science that aims to find relationships among valid constructs that can be replicated by anyone” (Bansal, Smith, & Vaara, 2018 , p. 1193). These recommendations appear to explicitly encourage the reporting of qualitative results as if they were quantitatively produced and interpreted and highlights the advantage of conformity to the prevailing positivist perspective to gain publication in AMJ.

Yet AMJ editors have also called for researchers to “ensure that the research questions, data, and analysis are internally consistent ” (Bansal et al., 2018 , p. 1193) and to “Be authentic , detailed and clear in argumentation” (emphasis added) (Bansal et al., 2018 , p. 1193). These calls for consistency appear to be inconsistent with suggestions to present all qualitative research using a style that mimics quantitative, positivist research. Adopting the quantitative or positivist style for all qualitative reports may also confuse scholars, limit research quality, and hamper efforts to produce innovative, non-positivist research. This article provides six qualitative research designs to ensure a range of qualitative research publications are internally consistent in methods, logics, paradigmatic commitments, and writing styles. These designs provide alternatives to positivist mimicry in non-positivist scholarly texts.

Integrating Qualitative and Quantitative Research in New Ways

Qualitative research often omits consideration of the naturally occurring uses of numbers and statistics in everyday discourse. And quantitative researchers tend to ignore qualitative evidence such as stories and discourse. Yet knowledge production processes in society “rely on experts and laypeople and, in so doing, make use of both statistics and stories in their attempt to represent and understand social reality” (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 , p. 1649). Numbers and statistics are often used in stories to create legitimacy, and stories provide meaning to numbers (Gephart, 1988 ). Hence stories and statistics cannot be separated in processes of knowledge production (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 , p. 1697). The lack of attention to the role of quantification in everyday life means a huge domain of organizational discourse—all talk that uses numbers, quantities, and statistics—is largely unexplored in organizational research.

Qualitative research has, however, begun to study how words and numbers are mutually used for organizational storytelling (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 ; Gephart, 2016 ). This focus offers the opportunity to develop research designs to explore qualitative features and processes involved in quantitative phenomena such as financial crises (Gephart, 2016 ), to address how stories and numbers need to work together to create legitimate knowledge (Ainsworth & Hardy, 2012 ), and to show how statistics are used rhetorically to convince others of truths in organizational research (Gephart, 1988 ).

Ethnostatistics (Gephart, 1988 ; Gephart & Saylors, 2019 ) provides one example of how to integrate qualitative and quantitative research. Ethnostatistics examines how statistics are constructed and used by professionals. It explores how statistics are constructed in real settings, how violations of technical assumptions impact statistical outcomes, and how statistics are used rhetorically to convince others of the truth of research outcomes. Ethnostatistics has been used to reinterpret data from four celebrated network studies that themselves were reanalyzed (Kilduff & Oh, 2006 ). The ethnostatistical reanalyses revealed how ad hoc practices, including judgment calls and the imputation of new data into old data set for reanalysis, transformed the focus of network research from diffusion models to structural equivalence models.

Another innovative study uses a Bayesian ethnostatistical approach to understand how the pressure to produce sophisticated and increasingly complex theoretical narratives for causal models has impacted the quantitative knowledge generated in top journals (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 ). The use of complex causal models has increased substantially over time due to a qualitative and untested belief that complex models are true. Yet statistically speaking, as the number of variables in a model increase, the likelihood the model is true rapidly decreases (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 , p. 3).

The authors test the previously untested (qualitative) belief that complex causal models can be true. They found that “the joint probability of a six variable model is about 3.5%” (Saylors & Trafimow, 2020 , p. 1). They conclude that “much of the knowledge generated in top journals is likely false” hence “not reporting a (prior) belief in a complex model” should be relegated to the set of questionable research practices. This study shows how qualitative research that explores the lay theories and beliefs of statisticians and quantitative researchers can challenge and disrupt conventions in quantitative research, improve quantitative practices, and contribute qualitative foundations to quantitative research. Ethnostatistics thus opens the qualitative foundations of quantitative research to critical qualitative analyses.

The six qualitative research design processes discussed in this article are evident in scholarly research on organizations and management and provide distinct qualitative research designs and approaches to use. Qualitative research can provide research insights from several theoretical perspectives, using well-developed methods to produce scientific and scholarly insights into management and organizations. These approaches and designs can also inform management practice by creating actionable knowledge. The intended contribution of this article is to describe these well-developed methods, articulate key practices, and display core research designs. The hope is both to better equip researchers to do qualitative research, and to inspire them to do so.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of Karen Lund at The University of Alberta for carefully preparing Figure 1 . Thanks also to Beverly Zubot for close reading of the manuscript and helpful suggestions.

• Adler, P. A. , & Adler, P. (1988). Intense loyalty in organizations: A case study of college athletics. Administrative Science Quarterly , 401–417.
• Adler, P. A. , & Adler, P. (1998). Intense loyalty in organizations: A case study of college athletics. In J. Van Maanen (Ed.), Qualitative studies of organizations (pp. 31–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Adler, P. S. , Forbes, L. C. , & Willmott, H. (2007). Critical management studies. Academy of Management Annals , 1 (1), 119–180.
• Agar, M. H. (1980). The professional stranger: An informal introduction to ethnography . New York, NY: Academic Press.
• Ainsworth, S. , & Hardy, C. (2012). Subjects of inquiry: Statistics, stories, and the production of knowledge. Organization Studies , 33 (12), 1693–1714.
• Akeson, C. (2005). Getting the truth: The police detective and the art of interviewing. In D. W. McCurdy , J. P. Spradley , & D. J. Shandy (Eds.), The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society (2nd ed., pp. 103–111). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
• Avenier, M.-J. , & Thomas, C. (2015). Finding one’s way around various methodological guidelines for doing rigorous case studies: A comparison of four epistemological frameworks. Systèmes d’information & Management , 20 (1), 61–98.
• Bansal, P. , & Corley, K. (2011). From the editors—The coming of age for qualitative research: Embracing the diversity of qualitative methods. Academy of Management Journal , 54 (2), 233–237.
• Bansal, P. , Smith, W. K. , & Vaara, E. (2018). From the editors: New ways of seeing through qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal , 61 (4), 1189–1195.
• Barker, J. R. (1993). Tightening the iron cage: Concertive control in self-managing teams. Administrative Science Quarterly , 38 (3), 408–437.
• Barker, J. (1998). Tightening the iron cage: Concertive control in self-managing teams. In J. Van Maanen (Ed.), Qualitative studies of organizations (pp. 126–158). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Barley, S. R. (2015). Why the internet makes buying a car less loathsome: How technologies change role relations. Academy of Management Discoveries , 1 (1), 31–60.
• Beckhard, R. (1969). Organization development: Strategies and models . Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• Berger, P. L. , & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge . New York, NY: Doubleday.
• Bhaskar, R. (1978). A realist theory of science . Sussex: Harvester Press; Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
• Bitektine, A. (2008). Prospective case study design: Qualitative method for deductive theory testing. Organizational Research Methods , 11 (1), 160–180.
• Blaikie, N. (1993). Approaches to social enquiry (1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
• Blaikie, N. (2010). Designing social research: The logic of anticipation (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
• Boje, D. M. (2001). Narrative methods for organizational and communication research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Boje, D. M. (2008). Storytelling organizations . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Boje, D. M. , Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Thatchenkery, T. J. (Eds.). (1996). Postmodern management and organization theory . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Boje, D. M. , & Saylors, R. (2014). Quantum storytelling: An ontological perspective on process. In F. Cooren , E. Vaara , A. Langley , & H. Tsoukas (Eds.), Language and communication at work: Discourse, narrativity, and organizing (pp. 197–217). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Buono, A. F. , & Savall, H. (Eds.). (2007). Socio-economic intervention in organizations: The intervener-researcher and the SEAM approach to organizational analysis . Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
• Burrell, G. , & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis: Elements of the sociology of corporate life . London, UK: Heinemann.
• Calás, M. B. (1987). Organizational science/fiction: The postmodern in the management disciplines (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
• Calás, M. B. , & Smircich, L. (1991). Voicing seduction to silence leadership. Organization Studies , 12 (4), 567–601.
• Campbell, D. T. (1975). Degrees of freedom and the case study. Comparative Political Studies , 8 (2), 178–193.
• Cicourel, A. V. (1980). Three models of discourse analysis: The role of social structure. Discourse Processes , 3 (2), 101–132.
• Cole, R. E. (1985). The macropolitics of organizational change: A comparative analysis of the spread of small-group activities. Administrative Science Quarterly , 30 (4), 560–585.
• Coulon, A. (1995). Ethnomethodology . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Culler, J. (1982). On deconstruction: Theory and criticism after structuralism . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Cummings, T. G. , & Worley, C. G. (2015). Organization development and change (10th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.
• Cunliffe, A. L. (2010). Retelling tales of the field: In search of organizational ethnography 20 years on. Organizational Research Methods , 13 (2), 224–239.
• Cunliffe, A. L. (2011). Crafting qualitative research: Morgan and Smircich 30 years on. Organizational Research Methods , 14 (4), 647–673.
• Czarniawska, B. (1998). A narrative approach to organization studies . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• de Rond, M. , & Tuncalp, D. (2017). Where the wild things are: How dreams can help identify countertransference in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods , 20 (3), 413–437.
• Denzin, N. K. , & Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Introduction: Entering the field of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (1st ed., pp. 1–7). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Dunne, D. D. , & Dougherty, D. (2016). Abductive reasoning: How innovators navigate in the labyrinth of complex innovation. Organization Studies , 37 (2), 131–159.
• Duriau, V. J. , Reger, R. K. , & Pfarrer, M. D. (2007). A content analysis of the content analysis literature in organization studies: Research themes, data sources, and methodological refinements. Organizational Research Methods , 10 (1), 5–34.
• Dutton, J. E. , Workman, K. M. , & Hardin, A. E. (2014). Compassion at work. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior , 1 (1), 277–304.
• Easterby-Smith, M. , Thorpe, R. , & Jackson, P. (2012). Management research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Fairclough, N. (1992). Discourse and social change . Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.
• Ganzin, M. , Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Suddaby, R. (2014). Narrative and the construction of myths in organizations. In F. Cooren , E. Vaara , A. Langley , & H. Tsoukas (Eds.), Language and communication at work: Discourse, narrativity, and organizing (pp. 219–260). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Garfinkel, H. (1964). Studies of the routine grounds of everyday activities. Social Problems , 11 (3), 225–250.
• Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (1978). Status degradation and organizational succession: An ethnomethodological approach. Administrative Science Quarterly , 23 (4), 553–581.
• Gephart, R. P. (1986). Deconstructing the defense for quantification in social science: A content analysis of journal articles on the parametric strategy. Qualitative Sociology , 9 (2), 126–144.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (1988). Ethnostatistics: Qualitative foundations for quantitative research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (1993). The textual approach: Risk and blame in disaster sensemaking. Academy of Management Journal , 36 (6), 1465–1514.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (1997). Hazardous measures: An interpretive textual analysis of quantitative sensemaking during crises. Journal of Organizational Behavior , 18 (S1), 583–622.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (2004). From the editors: Qualitative research and the Academy of Management Journal . Academy of Management Journal , 47 (4), 454–462.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (2013). Doing research with words: Qualitative methodologies and industrial/organizational psychology. In J. M. Cortina & R. S. Landis (Eds.), Modern research methods for the study of behavior in organizations (pp. 265–317). New York, NY: Routledge.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (2016). Counter-narration with numbers: Understanding the interplay of words and numerals in fiscal storytelling. European Journal of Cross-Cultural Competence and Management , 4 (1), 21–40.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. (2018). Qualitative research as interpretive social science. In C. Cassell , A. L. Cunliffe , & G. Grandy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative business and management research methods: History and traditions (pp. 33–53). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Kulicki, M. (2008). Environmental ethics and business: Toward a Habermasian perspective. In D. M. Boje (Ed.), Critical theory ethics for business and public administration (pp. 373–393). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Pitter, R. (1995). Textual analysis in technology research: An investigation of the management of technology risk. Technology Studies , 2 (2), 325–354.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Richardson, J. (2008). Qualitative research methodologies and international human resource management. In M. M. Harris (Ed.), Handbook of research in international human resource management (pp. 29–52). New York, NY: Erlbaum.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. , & Saylors, R. (2019). Ethnostatistics . In P. Atkinson , S. Delamont , A. Cernat , J. W. Sakshaug , & R. A. Williams (Eds.), SAGE research methods foundations . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Gephart, R. P., Jr. , Topal, C. , & Zhang, Z. (2010). Future-oriented sensemaking: Temporalities and institutional legitimation. In T. Hernes & S. Maitlis (Eds.), Process, sensemaking, & organizing (pp. 275–311). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
• Gibbert, M. , & Ruigrok, W. (2010). The “what” and “how” of case study rigor: Three strategies based on published work. Organizational Research Methods , 13 (4), 710–737.
• Gill, G. J. (2017). Dynamics of democratization: Elites, civil society and the transition process . New York, NY: Macmillan International Higher Education.
• Gioia, D. A. , Corley, K. G. , & Hamilton, A. L. (2012). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational Research Methods , 16 (1), 15–31.
• Glaser, B. G. , & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research . Chicago, IL: Aldine.
• Goffman, E. (1961). Asylums: Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates . New York, NY: Anchor Books.
• Graham, L. (1995). On the line at Subaru-Isuzu: The Japanese model and the American worker . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Greckhamer, T. , Misangyi, V. F. , Elms, H. , & Lacey, R. (2008). Using qualitative comparative analysis in strategic management research: An examination of combinations of industry, corporate, and business-unit effects. Organizational Research Methods , 11 (4), 695–726.
• Greenwood, M. , Jack, G. , & Haylock, B. (2019). Toward a methodology for analyzing visual rhetoric in corporate reports. Organizational Research Methods , 22 (3), 798–827.
• Habermas, J. (1973). Legitimation crisis ( T. McCarthy , Trans.). Frankfurt, Germany: Suhrkamp Verlag.
• Habermas, J. (1979). Communication and the evolution of society ( T. McCarthy , Trans.). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
• Hansen, H. , & Trank, C. Q. (2016). This is going to hurt: Compassionate research methods. Organizational Research Methods , 19 (3), 352–375.
• Hassard, J. (1993). Sociology and organization theory: Positivism, paradigms and postmodernity . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
• Hempel, C. (1966). Philosophy of natural science . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
• Hochschild, A. R. (1997). The time bind: When work becomes home and home becomes work . New York, NY: Metropolitan Books.
• Hodder, I. (1994). The interpretation of documents and material culture. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (1st ed., pp. 393–402). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Holstein, J. A. , & Gubrium, J. F. (1995). The active interview . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Jameson, F. (1991). Postmodernism, or, the cultural logic of late capitalism . Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
• Kelle, U. (Ed.). (1995). Computer-aided qualitative data analysis: Theory, methods and practice . London, UK: SAGE.
• Kilduff, M. (1993). Deconstructing organizations. Academy of Management Review , 18 (1), 13–31.
• Kilduff, M. , & Oh, H. (2006). Deconstructing diffusion: An ethnostatistical examination of Medical Innovation network data reanalyses. Organizational Research Methods , 9 (4), 432–455.
• Kirk, J. , & Miller, M. L. (1986). Reliability and validity in qualitative research . Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE.
• Lalonde, C. (2019). The development of actionable knowledge in crisis management. In R. P. Gephart, Jr. , C. C. Miller , & K. Svedberg Helgesson (Eds.), The Routledge companion to risk, crisis and emergency management (pp. 431–446). New York, NY: Routledge.
• LeBaron, C. , Jarzabkowski, P. , Pratt, M. G. , & Fetzer, G. (2018). An introduction to video methods in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods , 21 (2), 239–260.
• Lee, T. W. , & Mitchell, T. R. (1994). An alternative approach: The unfolding model of voluntary employee turnover. Academy of Management Review , 19 (1), 51–89.
• Lee, T. W. , Mitchell, T. R. , & Sablynski, C. J. (1999). Qualitative research in organizational and vocational psychology, 1979–1999. Journal of Vocational Behavior , 55 (2), 161–187.
• Lee, T. W. , Mitchell, T. R. , Wise, L. , & Fireman, S. (1996). An unfolding model of voluntary employee turnover. Academy of Management Journal , 39 (1), 5–36.
• Locke, K. (2001). Grounded theory in management research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Locke, K. (2002). The grounded theory approach to qualitative research. In F. Drasgow & N. Schmitt (Eds.), Measuring and analyzing behavior in organizations: Advances in measurement and data analysis (pp. 17–43). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
• Locke, K. , & Golden-Biddle, K. (2004). An introduction to qualitative research: Its potential for industrial and organizational psychology. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Handbook of research methods in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 99–118). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
• Malterud, K. (2001). Qualitative research: Standards, challenges, and guidelines. The Lancet , 358 (9280), 483–488.
• Maniha, J. , & Perrow, C. (1965). The reluctant organization and the aggressive environment. Administrative Science Quarterly , 10 (2), 238–257.
• Martin, J. (1990). Deconstructing organizational taboos: The suppression of gender conflict in organizations. Organization Science , 1 (4), 339–359.
• McCall, G. J. , & Simmons, J. L. (1969). (Eds.). Issues in participant observation: A text and reader . Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
• McCloskey, H. J. (1984). Ecological ethics and politics .Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield
• McCloskey, D. N. (1985). The rhetoric of economics (1st ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
• McCracken, G. (1988). The long interview . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• McCurdy, D. , Spradley, J. , & Shandy, D. (2005). The cultural experience: Ethnography in complex society (2nd ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
• McLeod, S. A. (2014, February 5). The interview research method . Simply Psychology.
• Mills, A. J. , Durepos, G. , & Wiebe, E. (Eds.). (2010). Encyclopedia of case study research (Vol. 1). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Morrow, R. A. (with Brown, D. D. ). (1994). Critical theory and methodology (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Offe, C. (1984). Das Wachstum der Dienstleistungsarbeit: Vier soziologische Erklärungsansätze. In C. Offe (Ed.), Arbeitsgeselleschaft. Strukturprobleme und Zukunftsperspektiven (pp. 291–319). Frankfurt am Main, Germany: Campus Verlag.
• Offe, C. (1985). New social movements: Challenging the boundaries of institutional politics. Social Research , 52 (4), 817–868.
• Palmer, I. , Dunford, R. , & Buchanan, D. A. (2017). Managing organizational change: A multiple perspectives approach (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
• Perlow, L. A. (1997). Finding time: How corporations, individuals, and families can benefit from new work practices . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
• Piekkari, R. , & Welch, C. (2012). Pluralism in international business and international management research: Making the case. In R. Piekkari & C. Welch (Eds.), Rethinking the case study in international business and management research (pp. 3–23). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
• Peirce, C. S. (1936). The Collected Papers . Eds. Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss . Cambridge M.A.: Harvard University Press.
• Pollach, I. (2012). Taming textual data: The contribution of corpus linguistics to computer-aided text analysis. Organizational Research Methods , 15 (2), 263–287.
• Poutanen, S. , & Kovalainen, A. (2010). Critical theory. In A. J. Mills , G. Durepos , & E. Wiebe (Eds.), Encyclopedia of case study research (Vol. 1, pp. 260–264). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Pratt, M. G. (2009). For the lack of a boilerplate: Tips on writing up (and reviewing) qualitative research. Academy of Management Journal , 52 (5), 856–862.
• Ray, J. L. , & Smith, A. D. (2012). Using photographs to research organizations: Evidence, considerations, and application in a field study. Organizational Research Methods , 15 (2), 288–315.
• Richardson, J. , & McKenna, S. (2000). Metaphorical “types” and human resource management: Self-selecting expatriates. Industrial and Commercial Training , 32 (6), 209–218.
• Rodriguez, N. , & Ryave, A. (2002). Systematic self-observation . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Rodriguez, N. , Ryave, A. , & Tracewell, J. (1998). Withholding compliments in everyday life and the covert management of disaffiliation. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography , 27 (3), 323–345.
• Rosenau, P. M. (1992). Post-modernism and the social sciences: Insights, inroads, and intrusions . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Rosile, G. A. , Boje, D. M. , Carlon, D. M. , Downs, A. , & Saylors, R. (2013). Storytelling diamond: An antenarrative integration of the six facets of storytelling in organization research design. Organizational Research Methods , 16 (4), 557–580.
• Roulet, T. J. , Gill, M. J. , Stenger, S. , & Gill, D. J. (2017). Reconsidering the value of covert research: The role of ambiguous consent in participant observation. Organizational Research Methods , 20 (3), 487–517.
• Rynes, S. L. , Bretz, R. D. , & Gerhart, B. (1991). The importance of recruitment in job choice: A different way of looking. Personnel Psychology , 44 (3), 487–521.
• Savall, H. (2007). ISEOR’s socio-economic method: A case of scientific consultancy. In A. F. Buono & H. Savall (Eds.), Socio-economic intervention in organizations: The intervener-researcher and the SEAM approach to organizational analysis (pp. 1–31). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
• Savall, H. , & Zardet, V. (2011). The qualimetrics approach: Observing the complex object . Charlotte, NC: Information Age.
• Savall, H. , Zardet, V. , & Bonnet, M. (2008). Releasing the untapped potential of enterprises through socio-economic management . Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Organization.
• Saylors, R. , & Trafimow, D. (2020). Why the increasing use of complex causal models is a problem: On the danger sophisticated theoretical narratives pose to truth . Organizational Research Methods , 1094428119893452.
• Schein, E. H. (1987). The clinical perspective in fieldwork . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Schutz, A. (1973a). Common-sense and scientific interpretation of human action. In M. Natanson (Ed.), Collected papers, volume I: The problem of social reality (pp. 3–47). The Hague, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Schutz, A. (1973b). Concept and theory formation in the social sciences. In M. Natanson (Ed.), Collected papers, volume I: The problem of social reality (pp. 48–66). The Hague, The Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff.
• Silverman, D. (2014). Interpreting qualitative data (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Smith, A. (2015). What grounded theory is . . . Organizational Research Methods , 18 (4), 578–580.
• Sonpar, K. , & Golden-Biddle, K. (2008). Using content analysis to elaborate adolescent theories of organization. Organizational Research Methods , 11 (4), 795–814.
• Spradley, J. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview . Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
• Spradley, J. P. (2016). Participant observation . Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
• Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443–466). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Su, N. (2018). Positivist qualitative methods. In C. Cassell , A. L. Cunliffe , & G. Grandy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative business and management research methods: History and traditions (pp. 17–32). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Van Maanen, J. (1973). Observations on the making of policemen. Human Organization , 32 (4), 407–418.
• Van Maanen, J. (1981, March). Fieldwork on the beat: An informal introduction to organizational ethnography . Paper presented at the workshop on Innovations in Methodology for Organizational Research, Center for Creative Leadership, Greensboro, NC.
• Van Maanen, J. (1988). Tales of the field: On writing ethnography . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
• Van Maanen, J. (1998). Different strokes: Qualitative research on the Administrative Science Quarterly from 1956 to 1996. In J. Van Maanen (Ed.), Qualitative studies of organizations (pp. ix–xxxii). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Van Maanen, J. (2010). A song for my supper: More tales of the field. Organizational Research Methods , 13 (2), 240–255.
• Walsh, I. , Holton, J. A. , Bailyn, L. , Fernandez, W. , Levina, N. , & Glaser, B. (2015). What grounded theory is . . . A critically reflective conversation among scholars. Organizational Research Methods , 18 (4), 581–599.
• Watson, T. J. (1994) . In search of management: Culture, chaos, and control in managerial work . London, UK: Routledge.
• Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology . Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Whittle, A. (2018). Ethnomethodology. In C. Cassell , A. L. Cunliffe , & G. Grandy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative business and management research methods: History and traditions (pp. 217–232). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
• Worley, C. G. , Zardet, V. , Bonnet, M. , & Savall, A. (2015). Becoming agile: How the SEAM approach to management builds adaptability . Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass.
• Yan, A. , & Gray, B. (1994). Bargaining power, management control, and performance in United States-China joint ventures: A comparative case study. Academy of Management Journal , 37 (6), 1478–1517.
• Ybema, S. , Yanow, D. , Wels, H. , & Kamsteeg, F. (2009). Organizational ethnography: Studying the complexity of everyday life . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

1. The fourth logic is retroduction. This refers to the process of building hypothetical models of structures and mechanisms that are assumed to produce empirical phenomena. It is the primary logic used in the critical realist approach to scientific research (Avenier & Thomas, 2015 ; Bhaskar, 1978 ). Retroduction requires the use of inductive or abductive strategies to discover the mechanisms that explain regularities (Blaikie, 2010 , p. 87). There is no evident logic for discovering mechanisms and this requires disciplined scientific thinking aided by creative imagination, intuition, and guesswork (Blaikie, 2010 ). Retroduction is likr deduction in asking “what” questions and differs from abduction because it produces explanations rather than understanding, causes rather than reasons, and hypothetical conceptual mechanisms rather than descriptions of behavioral processes as outcomes. Retroduction is becoming important in the field but has not as yet been extensively used in management and organization studies (for examples of uses, see Avenier & Thomas, 2015 ); hence, we do not address it at length in this article.

Related Articles

• Agency Theory in Business and Management Research
• Assessing the State of Top Management Teams Research
• Case Study Research: A State-of-the-Art Perspective
• Advances in Team Creativity Research

Printed from Oxford Research Encyclopedias, Business and Management. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice).

date: 30 June 2024

• Cookie Policy
• Privacy Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility
• [81.177.182.136]
• 81.177.182.136

Character limit 500 /500

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case NPS+ Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research

Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples

Content Index

Business research: Definition

Quantitative research methods, qualitative research methods, advantages of business research, disadvantages of business research, importance of business research.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information on all the areas of business and using such information to maximize the sales and profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which product/service is most profitable or in demand. In simple words, it can be stated as the acquisition of information or knowledge for professional or commercial purposes to determine opportunities and goals for a business.

Business research can be done for anything and everything. In general, when people speak about business research design , it means asking research questions to know where the money can be spent to increase sales, profits, or market share. Such research is critical to make wise and informed decisions.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

For example: A mobile company wants to launch a new model in the market. But they are not aware of what are the dimensions of a mobile that are in most demand. Hence, the company conducts business research using various methods to gather information, and the same is then evaluated, and conclusions are drawn as to what dimensions are most in demand.

This will enable the researcher to make wise decisions to position his phone at the right price in the market and hence acquire a larger market share.

LEARN ABOUT:  Test Market Demand

Business research: Types and methodologies

Business research is a part of the business intelligence process. It is usually conducted to determine whether a company can succeed in a new region, to understand its competitors, or simply select a marketing approach for a product. This research can be carried out using steps in qualitative research methods or quantitative research methods.

Quantitative research methods are research methods that deal with numbers. It is a systematic empirical investigation using statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques . Such methods usually start with data collection and then proceed to statistical analysis using various methods. The following are some of the research methods used to carry out business research.

LEARN ABOUT: Data Management Framework

Survey research

Survey research is one of the most widely used methods to gather data, especially for conducting business research. Surveys involve asking various survey questions to a set of audiences through various types like online polls, online surveys, questionnaires, etc. Nowadays, most of the major corporations use this method to gather data and use it to understand the market and make appropriate business decisions.

Various types of surveys, like cross-sectional studies , which need to collect data from a set of audiences at a given point of time, or longitudinal surveys which are needed to collect data from a set of audiences across various time durations in order to understand changes in the respondents’ behavior are used to conduct survey research. With the advancement in technology, surveys can now be sent online through email or social media .

For example: A company wants to know the NPS score for their website i.e. how satisfied are people who are visiting their website. An increase in traffic to their website or the audience spending more time on a website can result in higher rankings on search engines which will enable the company to get more leads as well as increase its visibility.

Hence, the company can ask people who visit their website a few questions through an online survey to understand their opinions or gain feedback and hence make appropriate changes to the website to increase satisfaction.

Learn More:  Business Survey Template

Correlational research

Correlational research is conducted to understand the relationship between two entities and what impact each one of them has on the other. Using mathematical analysis methods, correlational research enables the researcher to correlate two or more variables .

Such research can help understand patterns, relationships, trends, etc. Manipulation of one variable is possible to get the desired results as well. Generally, a conclusion cannot be drawn only on the basis of correlational research.

For example: Research can be conducted to understand the relationship between colors and gender-based audiences. Using such research and identifying the target audience, a company can choose the production of particular color products to be released in the market. This can enable the company to understand the supply and demand requirements of its products.

Causal-Comparative research

Causal-comparative research is a method based on the comparison. It is used to deduce the cause-effect relationship between variables. Sometimes also known as quasi-experimental research, it involves establishing an independent variable and analyzing the effects on the dependent variable.

In such research, data manipulation is not done; however, changes are observed in the variables or groups under the influence of the same changes. Drawing conclusions through such research is a little tricky as independent and dependent variables will always exist in a group. Hence all other parameters have to be taken into consideration before drawing any inferences from the research.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

For example: Research can be conducted to analyze the effect of good educational facilities in rural areas. Such a study can be done to analyze the changes in the group of people from rural areas when they are provided with good educational facilities and before that.

Another example can be to analyze the effect of having dams and how it will affect the farmers or the production of crops in that area.

LEARN ABOUT: Market research trends

Experimental research

Experimental research is based on trying to prove a theory. Such research may be useful in business research as it can let the product company know some behavioral traits of its consumers, which can lead to more revenue. In this method, an experiment is carried out on a set of audiences to observe and later analyze their behavior when impacted by certain parameters.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Targeting

For example: Experimental research was conducted recently to understand if particular colors have an effect on consumers’ hunger. A set of the audience was then exposed to those particular colors while they were eating, and the subjects were observed. It was seen that certain colors like red or yellow increase hunger.

Hence, such research was a boon to the hospitality industry. You can see many food chains like Mcdonalds, KFC, etc., using such colors in their interiors, brands, as well as packaging.

Another example of inferences drawn from experimental research, which is used widely by most bars/pubs across the world, is that loud music in the workplace or anywhere makes a person drink more in less time. This was proven through experimental research and was a key finding for many business owners across the globe.

Online research / Literature research

Literature research is one of the oldest methods available. It is very economical, and a lot of information can be gathered using such research. Online research or literature research involves gathering information from existing documents and studies, which can be available at Libraries, annual reports, etc.

Nowadays, with the advancement in technology, such research has become even more simple and accessible to everyone. An individual can directly research online for any information that is needed, which will give him in-depth information about the topic or the organization.

Such research is used mostly by marketing and salespeople in the business sector to understand the market or their customers. Such research is carried out using existing information that is available from various sources. However, care has to be taken to validate the sources from where the information is going to be collected.

For example , a salesperson has heard a particular firm is looking for some solution that their company provides. Hence, the salesperson will first search for a decision maker from the company, investigate what department he is from, and understand what the target company is looking for and what they are into.

Using this research, he can cater his solution to be spot on when he pitches it to this client. He can also reach out to the customer directly by finding a means to communicate with him by researching online.’

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

Qualitative research is a method that has a high importance in business research. Qualitative research involves obtaining data through open-ended conversational means of communication. Such research enables the researcher to not only understand what the audience thinks but also why he thinks it.

In such research, in-depth information can be gathered from the subjects depending on their responses. There are various types of qualitative research methods, such as interviews, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, and case study research, that are widely used.

Such methods are of very high importance in business research as they enable the researcher to understand the consumer. What motivates the consumer to buy and what does not is what will lead to higher sales, and that is the prime objective for any business.

Following are a few methods that are widely used in today’s world by most businesses.

Interviews are somewhat similar to surveys, like sometimes they may have the same types of questions used. The difference is that the respondent can answer these open-ended questions at length, and the direction of the conversation or the questions being asked can be changed depending on the response of the subject.

Such a method usually gives the researcher detailed information about the perspective or opinions of its subject. Carrying out interviews with subject matter experts can also give important information critical to some businesses.

For example: An interview was conducted by a telecom manufacturer with a group of women to understand why they have less number of female customers. After interviewing them, the researcher understood that there were fewer feminine colors in some of the models, and females preferred not to purchase them.

Such information can be critical to a business such as a  telecom manufacturer and hence it can be used to increase its market share by targeting women customers by launching some feminine colors in the market.

Another example would be to interview a subject matter expert in social media marketing. Such an interview can enable a researcher to understand why certain types of social media advertising strategies work for a company and why some of them don’t.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

Focus groups

Focus groups are a set of individuals selected specifically to understand their opinions and behaviors. It is usually a small set of a group that is selected keeping in mind the parameters for their target market audience to discuss a particular product or service. Such a method enables a researcher with a larger sample than the interview or a case study while taking advantage of conversational communication.

Focus group is also one of the best examples of qualitative data in education . Nowadays, focus groups can be sent online surveys as well to collect data and answer why, what, and how questions. Such a method is very crucial to test new concepts or products before they are launched in the market.

For example: Research is conducted with a focus group to understand what dimension of screen size is preferred most by the current target market. Such a method can enable a researcher to dig deeper if the target market focuses more on the screen size, features, or colors of the phone. Using this data, a company can make wise decisions about its product line and secure a higher market share.

Ethnographic research

Ethnographic research is one of the most challenging research but can give extremely precise results. Such research is used quite rarely, as it is time-consuming and can be expensive as well. It involves the researcher adapting to the natural environment and observing its target audience to collect data. Such a method is generally used to understand cultures, challenges, or other things that can occur in that particular setting.

For example: The world-renowned show “Undercover Boss” would be an apt example of how ethnographic research can be used in businesses. In this show, the senior management of a large organization works in his own company as a regular employee to understand what improvements can be made, what is the culture in the organization, and to identify hard-working employees and reward them.

It can be seen that the researcher had to spend a good amount of time in the natural setting of the employees and adapt to their ways and processes. While observing in this setting, the researcher could find out the information he needed firsthand without losing any information or any bias and improve certain things that would impact his business.

LEARN ABOUT:   Workforce Planning Model

Case study research

Case study research is one of the most important in business research. It is also used as marketing collateral by most businesses to land up more clients. Case study research is conducted to assess customer satisfaction and document the challenges that were faced and the solutions that the firm gave them.

These inferences are made to point out the benefits that the customer enjoyed for choosing their specific firm. Such research is widely used in other fields like education, social sciences, and similar. Case studies are provided by businesses to new clients to showcase their capabilities, and hence such research plays a crucial role in the business sector.

For example: A services company has provided a testing solution to one of its clients. A case study research is conducted to find out what were the challenges faced during the project, what was the scope of their work, what objective was to be achieved, and what solutions were given to tackle the challenges.

The study can end with the benefits that the company provided through its solutions, like reduced time to test batches, easy implementation or integration of the system, or even cost reduction. Such a study showcases the capability of the company, and hence it can be stated as empirical evidence of the new prospect.

Website visitor profiling/research

Website intercept surveys or website visitor profiling/research is something new that has come up and is quite helpful in the business sector. It is an innovative approach to collect direct feedback from your website visitors using surveys. In recent times a lot of business generation happens online, and hence it is important to understand the visitors of your website as they are your potential customers.

Collecting feedback is critical to any business, as without understanding a customer, no business can be successful. A company has to keep its customers satisfied and try to make them loyal customers in order to stay on top.

A website intercept survey is an online survey that allows you to target visitors to understand their intent and collect feedback to evaluate the customers’ online experience. Information like visitor intention, behavior path, and satisfaction with the overall website can be collected using this.

Depending on what information a company is looking for, multiple forms of website intercept surveys can be used to gather responses. Some of the popular ones are Pop-ups, also called Modal boxes, and on-page surveys.

For example: A prospective customer is looking for a particular product that a company is selling. Once he is directed to the website, an intercept survey will start noting his intent and path. Once the transaction has been made, a pop-up or an on-page survey is provided to the customer to rate the website.

Such research enables the researcher to put this data to good use and hence understand the customers’ intent and path and improve any parts of the website depending on the responses, which in turn would lead to satisfied customers and hence, higher revenues and market share.

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Research Questions and Questionnaires

• Business research helps to identify opportunities and threats.
• It helps identify research problems , and using this information, wise decisions can be made to tackle the issue appropriately.
• It helps to understand customers better and hence can be useful to communicate better with the customers or stakeholders.
• Risks and uncertainties can be minimized by conducting business research in advance.
• Financial outcomes and investments that will be needed can be planned effectively using business research.
• Such research can help track competition in the business sector.
• Business research can enable a company to make wise decisions as to where to spend and how much.
• Business research can enable a company to stay up-to-date with the market and its trends, and appropriate innovations can be made to stay ahead in the game.
• Business research helps to measure reputation management
• Business research can be a high-cost affair
• Most of the time, business research is based on assumptions
• Business research can be time-consuming
• Business research can sometimes give you inaccurate information because of a biased population or a small focus group.
• Business research results can quickly become obsolete because of the fast-changing markets

Business research is one of the most effective ways to understand customers, the market, and competitors. Such research helps companies to understand the demand and supply of the market. Using such research will help businesses reduce costs and create solutions or products that are targeted to the demand in the market and the correct audience.

In-house business research can enable senior management to build an effective team or train or mentor when needed. Business research enables the company to track its competitors and hence can give you the upper hand to stay ahead of them.

Failures can be avoided by conducting such research as it can give the researcher an idea if the time is right to launch its product/solution and also if the audience is right. It will help understand the brand value and measure customer satisfaction which is essential to continuously innovate and meet customer demands.

This will help the company grow its revenue and market share. Business research also helps recruit ideal candidates for various roles in the company. By conducting such research, a company can carry out a SWOT analysis , i.e. understand the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. With the help of this information, wise decisions can be made to ensure business success.

LEARN ABOUT:  Market research industry

Business research is the first step that any business owner needs to set up his business to survive or to excel in the market. The main reason why such research is of utmost importance is that it helps businesses to grow in terms of revenue, market share, and brand value.

MORE LIKE THIS

When You Have Something Important to Say, You want to Shout it From the Rooftops

Jun 28, 2024

The Item I Failed to Leave Behind — Tuesday CX Thoughts

Jun 25, 2024

Feedback Loop: What It Is, Types & How It Works?

Jun 21, 2024

QuestionPro Thrive: A Space to Visualize & Share the Future of Technology

Jun 18, 2024

Other categories

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• Questionnaire
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Tuesday CX Thoughts (TCXT)
• Uncategorized
• Video Learning Series
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Introduction to Business Research Methods

RELATED PAPERS

Research Methods for Business Students

Mark N K Saunders , Alexandra Bristow

Aakash yankannavar

Jacky Nicolson

WISE UP NAIROBI

Kamrul Hasan

Journal of Contemporary Research in Business Administration and Economic Sciences (JCR-BAES)

Fariba Azizzadeh

Research Methods for Business Students (7th edition) Chapter 4

Poudy Poudy Poudy Poudy

Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers

Vivek Patkar

International Journal of Business and Administrative Studies IJBAS

Daniel Kashikola

Sibel Baysak Bıyık

Bartjan Pennink

Lerato Kekana

Dr. Moses Gweyi

Business Horizons

Snobar Hussain

Hafizi Saari

Abdul Faheem

Proceedings of the 18th European Conference on Research Methodology for Business and Management Studies

Fauziah Sulaiman

David E Gray

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• DOI: 10.1017/9781108762427
• Corpus ID: 60838560

Research Methods in Business Studies

• P. Ghauri , K. Grønhaug , Roger Strange
• Published 4 April 2010

1,123 Citations

Circular business model – access based car service : a quantitative study from customers´ perspective, sme view on project marketing - case study in the context of institutional space business, establishing data collection procedures equivalence in international business research, business models : assessment of the dynamic aspects and non-dynamic aspects, knowledge-intensive companies and leadership - two empirical case studies, unique hr practices in the indian it industry: a research agenda, a strategic integration between agile and traditional project management approaches for a clear view on project closure in the insurance industry : the intesa sanpaolo life's case study.

• Highly Influenced

Toward an approach for aligning strategy and business process : A cross industry evaluation of critical factors in Jonkoping's SMEs

A critical exploration of collected data in business research: is data trustworthy a comparison of a survey and interviews, the business value of process management, 227 references, research methods for managers, handbook of qualitative research methods for international business, business research projects for students, business research methods, research methods for business students, accounting control systems and business strategy: an empirical analysis, researching and writing a dissertation : an essential guide for business students _3rd ed., event studies in management research: theoretical and empirical issues, what passes as a rigorous case study, the formalization of case study research in international business, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

• Business & Money
• Management & Leadership

Sorry, there was a problem.

Download the free Kindle app and start reading Kindle books instantly on your smartphone, tablet, or computer - no Kindle device required .

Read instantly on your browser with Kindle for Web.

Using your mobile phone camera - scan the code below and download the Kindle app.

Image Unavailable

• To view this video download Flash Player

Follow the author

Research Methods in Business Studies (4th Edition) 4th Edition

A concise, clear and comprehensive introduction to research methods, which equips students with a systematic approach to business research.

Written in an accessible style, this book demonstrates the importance of a scientific approach to business research and problem-solving projects. It shows students how to formulate a problem, choose a research method, argue and motivate, and how to collect, analyse and present the data. The following online resources support the text: For Instructors: PowerPoint slides

• ISBN-10 0273712047
• ISBN-13 978-0273712046
• Edition 4th
• Publisher Pearson
• Publication date April 4, 2010
• Language English
• Dimensions 6.7 x 0.8 x 9.4 inches
• Print length 288 pages
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

From the back cover.

This clear and concise guide is ideal for business students taking a course in research methods, or undertaking a dissertation or report on a work placement project. Research Methods in Business Studies shows you how to formulate a problem, choose a research method, argue and motivate, and how to collect, analyse and present the data.

Key features to help you succeed with your project include the following:

• Guidelines on how to formulate a research problem – preparing you to understand the question and objectives before starting out
• Explanations of the importance of different methods – equipping you with a systematic approach to the process
• Evaluations of different qualitative and quantitative methods – enabling you to choose the most appropriate method for your project
• Discussion of research theories and their practical application – aiding your understanding of theory in a real-life practical context
• Advice on how to structure clear, concise and relevant reports

In addition to fresh examples, more on advanced quantitative techniques and research theory, this fully updated 4 th edition now includes:

• A completely new chapter on cross-cultural research
• Expanded sections on ethical issues
• Greater focus on the application of qualitative software

About the authors

Dr Pervez Ghauri is Professor of International Business at King’s College London, London, UK.

Dr Kjell Grønhaug is Professor of Business Studies at the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, Bergen, Norway.

About the Author

Dr. Pervez Ghauri is Professor of International Business at Kings College London.

Dr Kjell Gronhaug is Professor of Business Studies at the Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration, Bergen, Norway..

Product details

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Pearson; 4th edition (April 4, 2010)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 288 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0273712047
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0273712046
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 1.06 pounds
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.7 x 0.8 x 9.4 inches
• #371 in Business Mathematics
• #4,434 in Strategic Business Planning
• #5,515 in Systems & Planning

About the author

Pervez n. ghauri.

Discover more of the author’s books, see similar authors, read author blogs and more

Customer reviews

Customer Reviews, including Product Star Ratings help customers to learn more about the product and decide whether it is the right product for them.

To calculate the overall star rating and percentage breakdown by star, we don’t use a simple average. Instead, our system considers things like how recent a review is and if the reviewer bought the item on Amazon. It also analyzed reviews to verify trustworthiness.

• Sort reviews by Top reviews Most recent Top reviews

Top reviews from the United States

There was a problem filtering reviews right now. please try again later..

Top reviews from other countries

• About Amazon
• Investor Relations
• Amazon Devices
• Amazon Science
• Sell products on Amazon
• Sell on Amazon Business
• Sell apps on Amazon
• Become an Affiliate
• Advertise Your Products
• Self-Publish with Us
• Host an Amazon Hub
• › See More Make Money with Us
• Amazon Business Card
• Shop with Points
• Reload Your Balance
• Amazon Currency Converter
• Amazon and COVID-19
• Your Account
• Your Orders
• Shipping Rates & Policies
• Returns & Replacements
• Manage Your Content and Devices

• Conditions of Use
• Privacy Notice
• Consumer Health Data Privacy Disclosure
• Your Ads Privacy Choices

Business and Management Reading List: Research Methods

• Principles and Functions of Management
• Law for Business
• Developing Professional and Academic Skills
• Business Planning and Entrepreneurship
• Financial Awareness for Business
• Marketing a Business Organisation
• Work-based Learning 1
• Business Economics
• Management and Organisational Behaviour
• Managing Organisational Behaviour
• Marketing and Sales Management
• Leading for Innovation and Business Performance
• Accounting for Managers
• Contemporary Issues in the Global Business Environment
• Research Methods
• Work-based Learning 2
• Multichannel Marketing
• International Marketing Strategy
• Professional futures: ethics and sustainability
• Developing Management in Practice
• Change Management
• Dissertation
• Employment Law

Essential Reading

Recommended Reading

Subject Librarian

• << Previous: Contemporary Issues in the Global Business Environment
• Next: Work-based Learning 2 >>
• Last Updated: Jul 28, 2023 2:48 PM
• URL: https://libguides.uos.ac.uk/business-and-management

➔ About the Library

➔ Meet the Team

➔ Customer Service Charter

➔ Library Policies & Regulations

➔ Privacy & Data Protection

Essential Links

➔ A-Z of eResources

➔ Frequently Asked Questions

➔Discover the Library

➔Referencing Help

➔ Print & Copy Services

➔ Service Updates

Library & Learning Services, University of Suffolk, Library Building, Long Street, Ipswich, IP4 1QJ

✉ Email Us: [email protected]

✆ Call Us: +44 (0)1473 3 38700

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Research Methodology – Types, Examples and writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methodology

Definition:

Research Methodology refers to the systematic and scientific approach used to conduct research, investigate problems, and gather data and information for a specific purpose. It involves the techniques and procedures used to identify, collect , analyze , and interpret data to answer research questions or solve research problems . Moreover, They are philosophical and theoretical frameworks that guide the research process.

Structure of Research Methodology

Research methodology formats can vary depending on the specific requirements of the research project, but the following is a basic example of a structure for a research methodology section:

I. Introduction

• Provide an overview of the research problem and the need for a research methodology section
• Outline the main research questions and objectives

II. Research Design

• Explain the research design chosen and why it is appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Discuss any alternative research designs considered and why they were not chosen
• Describe the research setting and participants (if applicable)

III. Data Collection Methods

• Describe the methods used to collect data (e.g., surveys, interviews, observations)
• Explain how the data collection methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or instruments used for data collection

IV. Data Analysis Methods

• Describe the methods used to analyze the data (e.g., statistical analysis, content analysis )
• Explain how the data analysis methods were chosen and why they are appropriate for the research question(s) and objectives
• Detail any procedures or software used for data analysis

V. Ethical Considerations

• Discuss any ethical issues that may arise from the research and how they were addressed
• Explain how informed consent was obtained (if applicable)
• Detail any measures taken to ensure confidentiality and anonymity

VI. Limitations

• Identify any potential limitations of the research methodology and how they may impact the results and conclusions

VII. Conclusion

• Summarize the key aspects of the research methodology section
• Explain how the research methodology addresses the research question(s) and objectives

Research Methodology Types

Types of Research Methodology are as follows:

Quantitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods. This type of research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Qualitative Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses.

Mixed-Methods Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that combines elements of both quantitative and qualitative research. This approach can be particularly useful for studies that aim to explore complex phenomena and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a particular topic.

Case Study Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves in-depth examination of a single case or a small number of cases. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and anthropology to gain a detailed understanding of a particular individual or group.

Action Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves a collaborative process between researchers and practitioners to identify and solve real-world problems. Action research is often used in education, healthcare, and social work.

Experimental Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effects on a dependent variable. Experimental research is often used to study cause-and-effect relationships and to make predictions.

Survey Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the collection of data from a sample of individuals using questionnaires or interviews. Survey research is often used to study attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.

Grounded Theory Research Methodology

This is a research methodology that involves the development of theories based on the data collected during the research process. Grounded theory is often used in sociology and anthropology to generate theories about social phenomena.

Research Methodology Example

An Example of Research Methodology could be the following:

Research Methodology for Investigating the Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Reducing Symptoms of Depression in Adults

Introduction:

The aim of this research is to investigate the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. To achieve this objective, a randomized controlled trial (RCT) will be conducted using a mixed-methods approach.

Research Design:

The study will follow a pre-test and post-test design with two groups: an experimental group receiving CBT and a control group receiving no intervention. The study will also include a qualitative component, in which semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a subset of participants to explore their experiences of receiving CBT.

Participants:

Participants will be recruited from community mental health clinics in the local area. The sample will consist of 100 adults aged 18-65 years old who meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the experimental group or the control group.

Intervention :

The experimental group will receive 12 weekly sessions of CBT, each lasting 60 minutes. The intervention will be delivered by licensed mental health professionals who have been trained in CBT. The control group will receive no intervention during the study period.

Data Collection:

Quantitative data will be collected through the use of standardized measures such as the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7). Data will be collected at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and at a 3-month follow-up. Qualitative data will be collected through semi-structured interviews with a subset of participants from the experimental group. The interviews will be conducted at the end of the intervention period, and will explore participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Data Analysis:

Quantitative data will be analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, and mixed-model analyses of variance (ANOVA) to assess the effectiveness of the intervention. Qualitative data will be analyzed using thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns in participants’ experiences of receiving CBT.

Ethical Considerations:

This study will comply with ethical guidelines for research involving human subjects. Participants will provide informed consent before participating in the study, and their privacy and confidentiality will be protected throughout the study. Any adverse events or reactions will be reported and managed appropriately.

Data Management:

All data collected will be kept confidential and stored securely using password-protected databases. Identifying information will be removed from qualitative data transcripts to ensure participants’ anonymity.

Limitations:

One potential limitation of this study is that it only focuses on one type of psychotherapy, CBT, and may not generalize to other types of therapy or interventions. Another limitation is that the study will only include participants from community mental health clinics, which may not be representative of the general population.

Conclusion:

This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in reducing symptoms of depression in adults. By using a randomized controlled trial and a mixed-methods approach, the study will provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the relationship between CBT and depression. The results of this study will have important implications for the development of effective treatments for depression in clinical settings.

How to Write Research Methodology

Writing a research methodology involves explaining the methods and techniques you used to conduct research, collect data, and analyze results. It’s an essential section of any research paper or thesis, as it helps readers understand the validity and reliability of your findings. Here are the steps to write a research methodology:

• Start by explaining your research question: Begin the methodology section by restating your research question and explaining why it’s important. This helps readers understand the purpose of your research and the rationale behind your methods.
• Describe your research design: Explain the overall approach you used to conduct research. This could be a qualitative or quantitative research design, experimental or non-experimental, case study or survey, etc. Discuss the advantages and limitations of the chosen design.
• Discuss your sample: Describe the participants or subjects you included in your study. Include details such as their demographics, sampling method, sample size, and any exclusion criteria used.
• Describe your data collection methods : Explain how you collected data from your participants. This could include surveys, interviews, observations, questionnaires, or experiments. Include details on how you obtained informed consent, how you administered the tools, and how you minimized the risk of bias.
• Explain your data analysis techniques: Describe the methods you used to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, content analysis, thematic analysis, or discourse analysis. Explain how you dealt with missing data, outliers, and any other issues that arose during the analysis.
• Discuss the validity and reliability of your research : Explain how you ensured the validity and reliability of your study. This could include measures such as triangulation, member checking, peer review, or inter-coder reliability.
• Acknowledge any limitations of your research: Discuss any limitations of your study, including any potential threats to validity or generalizability. This helps readers understand the scope of your findings and how they might apply to other contexts.
• Provide a summary: End the methodology section by summarizing the methods and techniques you used to conduct your research. This provides a clear overview of your research methodology and helps readers understand the process you followed to arrive at your findings.

When to Write Research Methodology

Research methodology is typically written after the research proposal has been approved and before the actual research is conducted. It should be written prior to data collection and analysis, as it provides a clear roadmap for the research project.

The research methodology is an important section of any research paper or thesis, as it describes the methods and procedures that will be used to conduct the research. It should include details about the research design, data collection methods, data analysis techniques, and any ethical considerations.

The methodology should be written in a clear and concise manner, and it should be based on established research practices and standards. It is important to provide enough detail so that the reader can understand how the research was conducted and evaluate the validity of the results.

Applications of Research Methodology

Here are some of the applications of research methodology:

• To identify the research problem: Research methodology is used to identify the research problem, which is the first step in conducting any research.
• To design the research: Research methodology helps in designing the research by selecting the appropriate research method, research design, and sampling technique.
• To collect data: Research methodology provides a systematic approach to collect data from primary and secondary sources.
• To analyze data: Research methodology helps in analyzing the collected data using various statistical and non-statistical techniques.
• To test hypotheses: Research methodology provides a framework for testing hypotheses and drawing conclusions based on the analysis of data.
• To generalize findings: Research methodology helps in generalizing the findings of the research to the target population.
• To develop theories : Research methodology is used to develop new theories and modify existing theories based on the findings of the research.
• To evaluate programs and policies : Research methodology is used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and policies by collecting data and analyzing it.
• To improve decision-making: Research methodology helps in making informed decisions by providing reliable and valid data.

Purpose of Research Methodology

Research methodology serves several important purposes, including:

• To guide the research process: Research methodology provides a systematic framework for conducting research. It helps researchers to plan their research, define their research questions, and select appropriate methods and techniques for collecting and analyzing data.
• To ensure research quality: Research methodology helps researchers to ensure that their research is rigorous, reliable, and valid. It provides guidelines for minimizing bias and error in data collection and analysis, and for ensuring that research findings are accurate and trustworthy.
• To replicate research: Research methodology provides a clear and detailed account of the research process, making it possible for other researchers to replicate the study and verify its findings.
• To advance knowledge: Research methodology enables researchers to generate new knowledge and to contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. It provides a means for testing hypotheses, exploring new ideas, and discovering new insights.
• To inform decision-making: Research methodology provides evidence-based information that can inform policy and decision-making in a variety of fields, including medicine, public health, education, and business.

Advantages of Research Methodology

Research methodology has several advantages that make it a valuable tool for conducting research in various fields. Here are some of the key advantages of research methodology:

• Systematic and structured approach : Research methodology provides a systematic and structured approach to conducting research, which ensures that the research is conducted in a rigorous and comprehensive manner.
• Objectivity : Research methodology aims to ensure objectivity in the research process, which means that the research findings are based on evidence and not influenced by personal bias or subjective opinions.
• Replicability : Research methodology ensures that research can be replicated by other researchers, which is essential for validating research findings and ensuring their accuracy.
• Reliability : Research methodology aims to ensure that the research findings are reliable, which means that they are consistent and can be depended upon.
• Validity : Research methodology ensures that the research findings are valid, which means that they accurately reflect the research question or hypothesis being tested.
• Efficiency : Research methodology provides a structured and efficient way of conducting research, which helps to save time and resources.
• Flexibility : Research methodology allows researchers to choose the most appropriate research methods and techniques based on the research question, data availability, and other relevant factors.
• Scope for innovation: Research methodology provides scope for innovation and creativity in designing research studies and developing new research techniques.

Research Methodology Vs Research Methods

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Research Recommendations – Examples and Writing...

Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and...

Dissertation – Format, Example and Template

Ethical Considerations – Types, Examples and...

Data Collection – Methods Types and Examples

Get science-backed answers as you write with Paperpal's Research feature

What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples

Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of the research. Several aspects must be considered before selecting an appropriate research methodology, such as research limitations and ethical concerns that may affect your research.

The research methodology section in a scientific paper describes the different methodological choices made, such as the data collection and analysis methods, and why these choices were selected. The reasons should explain why the methods chosen are the most appropriate to answer the research question. A good research methodology also helps ensure the reliability and validity of the research findings. There are three types of research methodology—quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-method, which can be chosen based on the research objectives.

What is research methodology ?

A research methodology describes the techniques and procedures used to identify and analyze information regarding a specific research topic. It is a process by which researchers design their study so that they can achieve their objectives using the selected research instruments. It includes all the important aspects of research, including research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and the overall framework within which the research is conducted. While these points can help you understand what is research methodology, you also need to know why it is important to pick the right methodology.

Why is research methodology important?

Having a good research methodology in place has the following advantages: 3

• Helps other researchers who may want to replicate your research; the explanations will be of benefit to them.
• You can easily answer any questions about your research if they arise at a later stage.
• A research methodology provides a framework and guidelines for researchers to clearly define research questions, hypotheses, and objectives.
• It helps researchers identify the most appropriate research design, sampling technique, and data collection and analysis methods.
• A sound research methodology helps researchers ensure that their findings are valid and reliable and free from biases and errors.
• It also helps ensure that ethical guidelines are followed while conducting research.
• A good research methodology helps researchers in planning their research efficiently, by ensuring optimum usage of their time and resources.

Writing the methods section of a research paper? Let Paperpal help you achieve perfection

Types of research methodology.

There are three types of research methodology based on the type of research and the data required. 1

• Quantitative research methodology focuses on measuring and testing numerical data. This approach is good for reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time. This type of research helps in testing the causal relationships between variables, making predictions, and generalizing results to wider populations.
• Qualitative research methodology examines the opinions, behaviors, and experiences of people. It collects and analyzes words and textual data. This research methodology requires fewer participants but is still more time consuming because the time spent per participant is quite large. This method is used in exploratory research where the research problem being investigated is not clearly defined.
• Mixed-method research methodology uses the characteristics of both quantitative and qualitative research methodologies in the same study. This method allows researchers to validate their findings, verify if the results observed using both methods are complementary, and explain any unexpected results obtained from one method by using the other method.

What are the types of sampling designs in research methodology?

Sampling 4 is an important part of a research methodology and involves selecting a representative sample of the population to conduct the study, making statistical inferences about them, and estimating the characteristics of the whole population based on these inferences. There are two types of sampling designs in research methodology—probability and nonprobability.

• Probability sampling

In this type of sampling design, a sample is chosen from a larger population using some form of random selection, that is, every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. The different types of probability sampling are:

• Systematic —sample members are chosen at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size determination that can be repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, it is the least time consuming.
• Stratified —researchers divide the population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these groups can be organized, and then a sample can be drawn from each group separately.
• Cluster —the population is divided into clusters based on demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc.
• Convenience —selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.
• Purposive —participants are selected at the researcher’s discretion. Researchers consider the purpose of the study and the understanding of the target audience.
• Snowball —already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.
• Quota —while designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.

What are data collection methods?

During research, data are collected using various methods depending on the research methodology being followed and the research methods being undertaken. Both qualitative and quantitative research have different data collection methods, as listed below.

Qualitative research 5

• One-on-one interviews: Helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event
• Document study/literature review/record keeping: Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.
• Focus groups: Constructive discussions that usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic.
• Qualitative observation : Researchers collect data using their five senses (sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing).

Quantitative research 6

• Sampling: The most common type is probability sampling.
• Interviews: Commonly telephonic or done in-person.
• Observations: Structured observations are most commonly used in quantitative research. In this method, researchers make observations about specific behaviors of individuals in a structured setting.
• Document review: Reviewing existing research or documents to collect evidence for supporting the research.
• Surveys and questionnaires. Surveys can be administered both online and offline depending on the requirement and sample size.

Let Paperpal help you write the perfect research methods section. Start now!

What are data analysis methods.

The data collected using the various methods for qualitative and quantitative research need to be analyzed to generate meaningful conclusions. These data analysis methods 7 also differ between quantitative and qualitative research.

Quantitative research involves a deductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed at the beginning of the research and precise measurement is required. The methods include statistical analysis applications to analyze numerical data and are grouped into two categories—descriptive and inferential.

Descriptive analysis is used to describe the basic features of different types of data to present it in a way that ensures the patterns become meaningful. The different types of descriptive analysis methods are:

• Measures of frequency (count, percent, frequency)
• Measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode)
• Measures of dispersion or variation (range, variance, standard deviation)
• Measure of position (percentile ranks, quartile ranks)

Inferential analysis is used to make predictions about a larger population based on the analysis of the data collected from a smaller population. This analysis is used to study the relationships between different variables. Some commonly used inferential data analysis methods are:

• Correlation: To understand the relationship between two or more variables.
• Cross-tabulation: Analyze the relationship between multiple variables.
• Regression analysis: Study the impact of independent variables on the dependent variable.
• Frequency tables: To understand the frequency of data.
• Analysis of variance: To test the degree to which two or more variables differ in an experiment.

Qualitative research involves an inductive method for data analysis where hypotheses are developed after data collection. The methods include:

• Content analysis: For analyzing documented information from text and images by determining the presence of certain words or concepts in texts.
• Narrative analysis: For analyzing content obtained from sources such as interviews, field observations, and surveys. The stories and opinions shared by people are used to answer research questions.
• Discourse analysis: For analyzing interactions with people considering the social context, that is, the lifestyle and environment, under which the interaction occurs.
• Grounded theory: Involves hypothesis creation by data collection and analysis to explain why a phenomenon occurred.
• Thematic analysis: To identify important themes or patterns in data and use these to address an issue.

How to choose a research methodology?

Here are some important factors to consider when choosing a research methodology: 8

• Research objectives, aims, and questions —these would help structure the research design.
• Review existing literature to identify any gaps in knowledge.
• Check the statistical requirements —if data-driven or statistical results are needed then quantitative research is the best. If the research questions can be answered based on people’s opinions and perceptions, then qualitative research is most suitable.
• Sample size —sample size can often determine the feasibility of a research methodology. For a large sample, less effort- and time-intensive methods are appropriate.
• Constraints —constraints of time, geography, and resources can help define the appropriate methodology.

Got writer’s block? Kickstart your research paper writing with Paperpal now!

How to write a research methodology .

A research methodology should include the following components: 3,9

• Research design —should be selected based on the research question and the data required. Common research designs include experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, descriptive, and exploratory.
• Research method —this can be quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method.
• Reason for selecting a specific methodology —explain why this methodology is the most suitable to answer your research problem.
• Research instruments —explain the research instruments you plan to use, mainly referring to the data collection methods such as interviews, surveys, etc. Here as well, a reason should be mentioned for selecting the particular instrument.
• Sampling —this involves selecting a representative subset of the population being studied.
• Data collection —involves gathering data using several data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, etc.
• Data analysis —describe the data analysis methods you will use once you’ve collected the data.
• Research limitations —mention any limitations you foresee while conducting your research.
• Validity and reliability —validity helps identify the accuracy and truthfulness of the findings; reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the results over time and across different conditions.
• Ethical considerations —research should be conducted ethically. The considerations include obtaining consent from participants, maintaining confidentiality, and addressing conflicts of interest.

Streamline Your Research Paper Writing Process with Paperpal

The methods section is a critical part of the research papers, allowing researchers to use this to understand your findings and replicate your work when pursuing their own research. However, it is usually also the most difficult section to write. This is where Paperpal can help you overcome the writer’s block and create the first draft in minutes with Paperpal Copilot, its secure generative AI feature suite.  

With Paperpal you can get research advice, write and refine your work, rephrase and verify the writing, and ensure submission readiness, all in one place. Here’s how you can use Paperpal to develop the first draft of your methods section.  

• Generate an outline: Input some details about your research to instantly generate an outline for your methods section 
• Develop the section: Use the outline and suggested sentence templates to expand your ideas and develop the first draft.  
• P araph ras e and trim : Get clear, concise academic text with paraphrasing that conveys your work effectively and word reduction to fix redundancies. 
• Choose the right words: Enhance text by choosing contextual synonyms based on how the words have been used in previously published work.  
• Check and verify text : Make sure the generated text showcases your methods correctly, has all the right citations, and is original and authentic. .   

You can repeat this process to develop each section of your research manuscript, including the title, abstract and keywords. Ready to write your research papers faster, better, and without the stress? Sign up for Paperpal and start writing today!

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. What are the key components of research methodology?

A1. A good research methodology has the following key components:

• Research design
• Data collection procedures
• Data analysis methods
• Ethical considerations

Q2. Why is ethical consideration important in research methodology?

A2. Ethical consideration is important in research methodology to ensure the readers of the reliability and validity of the study. Researchers must clearly mention the ethical norms and standards followed during the conduct of the research and also mention if the research has been cleared by any institutional board. The following 10 points are the important principles related to ethical considerations: 10

• Participants should not be subjected to harm.
• Respect for the dignity of participants should be prioritized.
• Full consent should be obtained from participants before the study.
• Participants’ privacy should be ensured.
• Confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organizations participating in the research should be maintained.
• The aims and objectives of the research should not be exaggerated.
• Affiliations, sources of funding, and any possible conflicts of interest should be declared.
• Communication in relation to the research should be honest and transparent.
• Misleading information and biased representation of primary data findings should be avoided.

Q3. What is the difference between methodology and method?

A3. Research methodology is different from a research method, although both terms are often confused. Research methods are the tools used to gather data, while the research methodology provides a framework for how research is planned, conducted, and analyzed. The latter guides researchers in making decisions about the most appropriate methods for their research. Research methods refer to the specific techniques, procedures, and tools used by researchers to collect, analyze, and interpret data, for instance surveys, questionnaires, interviews, etc.

Research methodology is, thus, an integral part of a research study. It helps ensure that you stay on track to meet your research objectives and answer your research questions using the most appropriate data collection and analysis tools based on your research design.

Accelerate your research paper writing with Paperpal. Try for free now!

• Research methodologies. Pfeiffer Library website. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://library.tiffin.edu/researchmethodologies/whatareresearchmethodologies
• Types of research methodology. Eduvoice website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://eduvoice.in/types-research-methodology/
• The basics of research methodology: A key to quality research. Voxco. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.voxco.com/blog/what-is-research-methodology/
• Sampling methods: Types with examples. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/types-of-sampling-for-social-research/
• What is qualitative research? Methods, types, approaches, examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-qualitative-research-methods-types-examples/
• What is quantitative research? Definition, methods, types, and examples. Researcher.Life blog. Accessed August 15, 2023. https://researcher.life/blog/article/what-is-quantitative-research-types-and-examples/
• Data analysis in research: Types & methods. QuestionPro website. Accessed August 16, 2023. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/data-analysis-in-research/#Data_analysis_in_qualitative_research
• Factors to consider while choosing the right research methodology. PhD Monster website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://www.phdmonster.com/factors-to-consider-while-choosing-the-right-research-methodology/
• What is research methodology? Research and writing guides. Accessed August 14, 2023. https://paperpile.com/g/what-is-research-methodology/
• Ethical considerations. Business research methodology website. Accessed August 17, 2023. https://research-methodology.net/research-methodology/ethical-considerations/

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• Dangling Modifiers and How to Avoid Them in Your Writing 
• Webinar: How to Use Generative AI Tools Ethically in Your Academic Writing
• Research Outlines: How to Write An Introduction Section in Minutes with Paperpal Copilot
• How to Paraphrase Research Papers Effectively

Language and Grammar Rules for Academic Writing

Climatic vs. climactic: difference and examples, you may also like, how to structure an essay, leveraging generative ai to enhance student understanding of..., how to write a good hook for essays,..., addressing peer review feedback and mastering manuscript revisions..., how paperpal can boost comprehension and foster interdisciplinary..., what is the importance of a concept paper..., how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples, how to ace grant writing for research funding..., powerful academic phrases to improve your essay writing .

Root out friction in every digital experience, super-charge conversion rates, and optimize digital self-service

Uncover insights from any interaction, deliver AI-powered agent coaching, and reduce cost to serve

Increase revenue and loyalty with real-time insights and recommendations delivered to teams on the ground

Know how your people feel and empower managers to improve employee engagement, productivity, and retention

Take action in the moments that matter most along the employee journey and drive bottom line growth

Whatever they’re are saying, wherever they’re saying it, know exactly what’s going on with your people

Get faster, richer insights with qual and quant tools that make powerful market research available to everyone

Run concept tests, pricing studies, prototyping + more with fast, powerful studies designed by UX research experts

Track your brand performance 24/7 and act quickly to respond to opportunities and challenges in your market

Explore the platform powering Experience Management

• Free Account
• Product Demos
• For Digital
• For Customer Care
• For Human Resources
• For Researchers
• Financial Services
• All Industries

Popular Use Cases

• Customer Experience
• Employee Experience
• Net Promoter Score
• Voice of Customer
• Customer Success Hub
• Product Documentation
• Training & Certification
• XM Institute
• Popular Resources
• Customer Stories
• Artificial Intelligence

Market Research

• Partnerships
• Marketplace

The annual gathering of the experience leaders at the world’s iconic brands building breakthrough business results, live in Salt Lake City.

• English/AU & NZ
• Español/Europa
• Español/América Latina
• Português Brasileiro
• REQUEST DEMO
• Experience Management
• Business Research

Try Qualtrics for free

Business research: definition, types & methods.

10 min read What is business research and why does it matter? Here are some of the ways business research can be helpful to your company, whichever method you choose to carry it out.

What is business research?

Business research helps companies make better business decisions by gathering information. The scope of the term business research is quite broad – it acts as an umbrella that covers every aspect of business, from finances to advertising creative. It can include research methods which help a company better understand its target market. It could focus on customer experience and assess customer satisfaction levels. Or it could involve sizing up the competition through competitor research.

Often when carrying out business research, companies are looking at their own data, sourced from their employees, their customers and their business records. However, business researchers can go beyond their own company in order to collect relevant information and understand patterns that may help leaders make informed decisions. For example, a business may carry out ethnographic research where the participants are studied in the context of their everyday lives, rather than just in their role as consumer, or look at secondary data sources such as open access public records and empirical research carried out in academic studies.

There is also a body of knowledge about business in general that can be mined for business research purposes. For example organizational theory and general studies on consumer behavior.

Free eBook: 2024 global market research trends report

Why is business research important?

We live in a time of high speed technological progress and hyper-connectedness. Customers have an entire market at their fingertips and can easily switch brands if a competitor is offering something better than you are. At the same time, the world of business has evolved to the point of near-saturation. It’s hard to think of a need that hasn’t been addressed by someone’s innovative product or service.

The combination of ease of switching, high consumer awareness and a super-evolved marketplace crowded with companies and their offerings means that businesses must do whatever they can to find and maintain an edge. Business research is one of the most useful weapons in the fight against business obscurity, since it allows companies to gain a deep understanding of buyer behavior and stay up to date at all times with detailed information on their market.

Thanks to the standard of modern business research tools and methods, it’s now possible for business analysts to track the intricate relationships between competitors, financial markets, social trends, geopolitical changes, world events, and more.

Find out how to conduct your own market research and make use of existing market research data with our Ultimate guide to market research

Types of business research

Business research methods vary widely, but they can be grouped into two broad categories – qualitative research and quantitative research .

Qualitative research methods

Qualitative business research deals with non-numerical data such as people’s thoughts, feelings and opinions. It relies heavily on the observations of researchers, who collect data from a relatively small number of participants – often through direct interactions.

Qualitative research interviews take place one-on-one between a researcher and participant. In a business context, the participant might be a customer, a supplier, an employee or other stakeholder. Using open-ended questions , the researcher conducts the interview in either a structured or unstructured format. Structured interviews stick closely to a question list and scripted phrases, while unstructured interviews are more conversational and exploratory. As well as listening to the participant’s responses, the interviewer will observe non-verbal information such as posture, tone of voice and facial expression.

Focus groups

Like the qualitative interview, a focus group is a form of business research that uses direct interaction between the researcher and participants to collect data. In focus groups , a small number of participants (usually around 10) take part in a group discussion led by a researcher who acts as moderator. The researcher asks questions and takes note of the responses, as in a qualitative research interview. Sampling for focus groups is usually purposive rather than random, so that the group members represent varied points of view.

Observational studies

In an observational study, the researcher may not directly interact with participants at all, but will pay attention to practical situations, such as a busy sales floor full of potential customers, or a conference for some relevant business activity. They will hear people speak and watch their interactions , then record relevant data such as behavior patterns that relate to the subject they are interested in. Observational studies can be classified as a type of ethnographic research. They can be used to gain insight about a company’s target audience in their everyday lives, or study employee behaviors in actual business situations.

Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research is an immersive design of research where one observes peoples’ behavior in their natural environment. Ethnography was most commonly found in the anthropology field and is now practices across a wide range of social sciences.

Ehnography is used to support a designer’s deeper understanding of the design problem – including the relevant domain, audience(s), processes, goals and context(s) of use.

The ethnographic research process is a popular methodology used in the software development lifecycle. It helps create better UI/UX flow based on the real needs of the end-users.

If you truly want to understand your customers’ needs, wants, desires, pain-points “walking a mile” in their shoes enables this. Ethnographic research is this deeply rooted part of research where you truly learn your targe audiences’ problem to craft the perfect solution.

Case study research

A case study is a detailed piece of research that provides in depth knowledge about a specific person, place or organization. In the context of business research, case study research might focus on organizational dynamics or company culture in an actual business setting, and case studies have been used to develop new theories about how businesses operate. Proponents of case study research feel that it adds significant value in making theoretical and empirical advances. However its detractors point out that it can be time consuming and expensive, requiring highly skilled researchers to carry it out.

Quantitative research methods

Quantitative research focuses on countable data that is objective in nature. It relies on finding the patterns and relationships that emerge from mass data – for example by analyzing the material posted on social media platforms, or via surveys of the target audience. Data collected through quantitative methods is empirical in nature and can be analyzed using statistical techniques. Unlike qualitative approaches, a quantitative research method is usually reliant on finding the right sample size, as this will determine whether the results are representative. These are just a few methods – there are many more.

Surveys are one of the most effective ways to conduct business research. They use a highly structured questionnaire which is distributed to participants, typically online (although in the past, face to face and telephone surveys were widely used). The questions are predominantly closed-ended, limiting the range of responses so that they can be grouped and analyzed at scale using statistical tools. However surveys can also be used to get a better understanding of the pain points customers face by providing open field responses where they can express themselves in their own words. Both types of data can be captured on the same questionnaire, which offers efficiency of time and cost to the researcher.

Correlational research

Correlational research looks at the relationship between two entities, neither of which are manipulated by the researcher. For example, this might be the in-store sales of a certain product line and the proportion of female customers subscribed to a mailing list. Using statistical analysis methods, researchers can determine the strength of the correlation and even discover intricate relationships between the two variables. Compared with simple observation and intuition, correlation may identify further information about business activity and its impact, pointing the way towards potential improvements and more revenue.

Experimental research

It may sound like something that is strictly for scientists, but experimental research is used by both businesses and scholars alike. When conducted as part of the business intelligence process, experimental research is used to test different tactics to see which ones are most successful – for example one marketing approach versus another. In the simplest form of experimental research, the researcher identifies a dependent variable and an independent variable. The hypothesis is that the independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable, and the researcher will change the independent one to test this assumption. In a business context, the hypothesis might be that price has no relationship to customer satisfaction. The researcher manipulates the price and observes the C-Sat scores to see if there’s an effect.

The best tools for business research

You can make the business research process much quicker and more efficient by selecting the right tools. Business research methods like surveys and interviews demand tools and technologies that can store vast quantities of data while making them easy to access and navigate. If your system can also carry out statistical analysis, and provide predictive recommendations to help you with your business decisions, so much the better.

Related resources

Market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, request demo.

Ready to learn more about Qualtrics?

Company reports, analysis and business research methods since 2011 by John Dudovskiy

Save hours of business research by using a library of thoroughly written reports and articles., business reports on world’s top companies, all you need for your business research, trusted source of knowledge, honed by years of experience, offering unparalleled depth in business reports, analysis, and research methods since 2011. your journey to informed decision-making starts here, competent researchers, a team of seasoned dissertation advisers with practical business management experience., comprehensive reports, application of major tools swot, pestel, porter’s 5 forces, value chain etc. within a single report., dissertation guide, comprehensive guidance from the selection of the research area to the completion of the final draft., up-to-date data, regularly updated articles and business reports reflect changes in the macroeconomic environment., business analytical tools.

A simple yet powerful framework for assessing a company's competitive position, developing business strategies, and making informed decisions. Strategic analytical tool for analyzing:

Opportunities

A marketing planning model that helps companies to identify and evaluate their growth options and determine its product and market strategy. The model integrates four different strategy options:

Market Penetration

Product Development

Market Development

Diversification

Strategic analytical tool for assessing external factors affecting businesses. The PESTEL acronym stands for:

Technological

Environmental

Legal factors impacting companies

Comprises elements of the marketing mix. Companies manipulate each element based on their marketing and business strategy:

Physical Evidence

Consequent marketing decisions at the core of a company’s marketing strategy.

Segmentation: Dividing the population into groups based on common traits and characteristics.

Targeting: Choosing specific groups identified through segmentation as consumers for the brand.

Positioning: Selecting the most attractive marketing mix for the target customer segment.

Addresses individual elements of the marketing mix, including:

Print and Media Advertising

Sales Promotions

Events and Experiences

Public Relations

Direct Marketing

Analytical framework by Michael Porter (1979) representing five individual forces shaping the overall extent of competition in the industry:

Threat of New Entrants

Bargaining Power of Buyers

Bargaining Power of Suppliers

Threat of Substitute Products or Services

Intensity of Competitive Rivalry

Analytical framework that helps to identify business activities with potential for creating value and competitive advantage. Sources of value creation include:

Inbound Logistics

Outbound Logistics

Marketing and Sales

Procurement

Illustrates the alignment of seven elements within businesses for positive implications on overall effectiveness. The framework categorizes:

Hard Elements:

Soft Elements:

Shared Values

Company Reports

Find a company report you are looking for, our team of experts prepared a list of world top company business reports. looking for something specific just search from the list below., business research methodology.

The backbone of a compelling and impactful dissertation. It's not just a series of steps to tick off; it's the very foundation upon which your insights and conclusions rest.

Choosing the right research methods is like picking the perfect tools for a job – it makes all the difference in the quality and impact of your business dissertation.

The guiding light for your entire dissertation journey. It's more than just the "how" of your research; it's the lens through which you view your topic and interpret your findings.

The bedrock of your research approach. It’s a subtle yet powerful force shaping your entire dissertation foundation, influencing everything from research questions to interpretation of findings.

Data collection methods are the lifeblood of your dissertation. They're the tools you use to gather the raw materials that will be shaped into your insightful and impactful conclusions.

Data analysis in a dissertation is like the chef's secret ingredient – it takes your raw information and transforms it into a delectable dish of knowledge and insights.

Sampling might seem like a small, technical detail in your dissertation, but it's actually a linchpin – the bridge between your specific data and the broader conclusions you draw.

The cornerstones of a responsible and impactful dissertation. They are about ensuring your research is conducted with integrity, respect, and a commitment to doing no harm​.

Up-to-date articles

Insightful articles to help with business studies and navigate ever-changing landscape of global business..

• Company Profiles & Analysis
• Consumer Behaviour
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Customer Services
• Industry Analysis
• International Business
• Literature Review

The Ultimate Guide to

Writing dissertation in business studies, step-by-step guidance derived from the experience of assisting hundreds of students who have successfully completed dissertations in business studies., step-by-step guidance for bachelors and masters, simple language for easy understanding, master the art of writing in business studies.

A fantastic book and a big help

— Lewis Scollen, Leeds Beckett University, England

Testimonials

At research methodology, our users aren't just satisfied – they're thriving in their academic and professional pursuits. don't just take our word for it, hear from those who have experienced firsthand the transformative power of our platform..

Of all the research books I have read, this is the easiest to understand. I now feel like I know exactly what I need to do.

I really thank you and appreciate the manner in which the book has been written and published for the researchers.

Comprehensive is the right word for this guidance.

A fantastic book and a big help.

Frequently asked questions

Everything you need to know about this portal.

1. Reports offered in this portal are produced by a small team led by academic writer John Dudovski. 2. Our reports are shorter compared to reports produced by large research companies. Company reports are produced to assist with academic works of business students in particular. Therefore, all points that do not relate to academic needs of business students are left out. 3. We do not have huge fixed expenses large research companies do, thus, we are able to deliver reports for a little cost.

After completing the payment you will receive a link to the e-mail related to your Pay Pal account or the e-email you entered when specifying bank details. You can download the report via this link. The report is downloaded in PDF format. The link will stay active for 7 days.

Reports offered by research-methodology.net are professionally written samples in their respective areas. Reports are intended to be used as guides and sources of secondary data for reference purposes.

When you buy a report or e-book, along with your purchase details you will receive a Coupon Code. For your next purchase simply use this code when proceeding to checkout and you will receive 50% discount.

If you have any difficulties with downloading reports you have purchased please e-mail us the details of your purchase. We will send the report to you as an e-mail attachment promptly.

Still have questions?

Can’t find the answer you’re looking for chat with our friendly team., methodology, writing dissertation proposal, research process, research approach, reliability and validity, suggestions for future research, research design, types of research methods, research philosophy, epistemology, positivism research philosophy, pragmatism research philosophy, phenomenology, interpretivism research philosophy, research methods, data collection methods, data analysis, ethical considerations, research limitations, probability sampling, non-probability sampling.

• Data Science
• Digital Marketing
• DBA Courses
• Machine Learning & AI
• Product Management

Table of Contents

Business research methodologies enable organizations to gather meaningful data and derive actionable insights. From qualitative interviews to quantitative analytics, selecting the appropriate research approach is foundational. This article will explore “ DBA research methodologies ” utilizing both qualitative and quantitative techniques to demonstrate how “doctoral studies” rigorously examine topics for optimal “business research methods”.

The Building Blocks: DBA Research Methodologies

“ DBA research methodologies ” incorporate diverse academic disciplines to study complex business problems. Common approaches include:

“Qualitative research” methods like ethnography and case study analysis are used to gather in-depth, descriptive data on behaviors, processes, and “why” questions through interviews, focus groups, observations, etc.

“ Quantitative analysis ” uses statistical modeling and large datasets to identify correlations and patterns that answer “what” and “how many” questions.

Tailoring the Methodology to the Research Question

Not all techniques work for every research scenario. Choosing the proper methodology requires clearly defining the question and desired outcomes upfront.

“DBA research methodologies” selection criteria include:

• Purpose: Is it an exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory study? What data is needed to address the research problem?
• Resources: Are enough participants, funding, tools, and researcher expertise available?
• “Business research methods” suitability: Do qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods fit best?

Qualitative Business Research in Practice

“ Qualitative research “, like case studies, offers an intimate understanding of management challenges through first-hand experiences and perspectives.

For example, interviewing executives on leadership development initiatives may reveal:

• Onboarding program weaknesses increasing early leader turnover
• Communication breakdowns around development goal-setting
• Lack of coaching support to reinforce training concepts

Such vivid insights direct specific improvements. They also inform quantitative follow-up studies predicting retention boosts from particular changes.

Advantages of Quantitative Analytics

While qualitative designs provide depth, “quantitative analysis” delivers breadth by statistically testing hypotheses on large samples. Benefits include:

• Generalizability: Findings represent broader populations within confidence levels
• Objectivity: Statistical tests quantify reliability more definitively than subjective assessments
• Predictiveness: Data patterns forecast future outcomes to guide decisions

For example, leadership surveys across 500 managers could model links between specific coaching interactions, engagement gains and productivity metrics.

Achieving Research Objectives Through a Mixed Methods Approach

Combining qualitative and quantitative business research techniques as part of robust “DBA research methodologies” boosts the credibility and practical value of findings. The strengths of each approach offset the other’s limitations.

Qualitative stage:

• Gathers detailed observational and interview data on coaching interactions from a small leader sample
• Provides behaviors and sentiment themes to explore further using surveys

Quantitative stage:

• Tests earlier findings across wider groups using correlational statistics and regression analysis
• Connects coaching frequency and techniques to engagement, retention and performance measures
• Together, these phases yield nuanced discoveries that are impossible using one methodology.

Conclusion 

Sophisticated “DBA research methodologies” necessitate understanding the full toolkit of “business research methods” from ethnographies to experiments. While qualitative designs reveal key psychological and social dynamics, quantitative analytics assess their business impacts more conclusively. Combining these techniques produces superior insights to empower impactful organizational decisions and leadership strategies.

1. What are some examples of qualitative business research methods?

Common qualitative methods include in-depth interviews, focus groups, participant observations, case study analysis, and ethnographic research. These techniques gather non-numerical data on behaviors, emotions, organizational processes, and experiential perspectives.

2. When should quantitative methods be used instead?

Quantitative analytics, such as surveys and experiments, that collect numerical data for statistical analysis are preferred for testing hypotheses, predicting outcomes, generalizing results to wider populations, and establishing causal, correlational, or probabilistic relationships between variables.

3. What are the main benefits of mixed methods research?

Combining qualitative and quantitative techniques mitigates the limitations of each, providing richer insights through an initial exploratory phase to uncover themes, behaviors and language for follow-up hypothesis testing using broader samples and correlational statistics.

4. Does the research question determine the best methodology?

Yes, clearly defining the research purpose and goals upfront provides criteria to select the most appropriate primary and supporting techniques, whether qualitative, quantitative or both.

5. How can business researchers ensure high-quality studies?

Rigorous quality standards include mitigating bias, establishing validity and reliability measures, choosing representative samples, aligning analysis with data collected, accurately reporting limitations, and ethically obtaining informed consent.

6. What role do literature reviews play in research design?

Literature reviews critically examine prior theories and findings to position new questions, avoid duplication, select proven measurements, build foundational knowledge, and identify promising methodological directions.

7. Which analytics methods are trending in business research?

Data mining, machine learning predictive modeling, social network analysis, multivariate statistics, and text mining are increasingly supplementing traditional analytics to uncover insights from today’s complex business datasets.

The Impact of a DBA on Strategic Decision Making

Unlocking your potential: overcoming barriers to critical thinking, strategic human resource management: aligning people with business goals, title image box.

Add an Introductory Description to make your audience curious by simply setting an Excerpt on this section

Get Free Consultation

Most popular, strategic product marketing: aligning with business goals, the role of mbas in family business management, reinforcement learning: concepts, algorithms, and applications, data governance: ensuring data quality and compliance, editor picks, popular posts, popular category.

• Doctorate of Business Administration 42
• Data Science & Analytics 39
• Machine Learning & AI 30
• Product and Project Management 29
• Digital Marketing 26
• Coding & Blockchain 12
• Management 12

Get Free career counselling from upGrad experts!

Book a session with an industry professional today!

© 2015-2021 upGrad Education Private Limited. All rights reserved

• Data Science & Analytics
• Doctorate of Business Administration
• Product and Project Management

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

Research: Using AI at Work Makes Us Lonelier and Less Healthy

• David De Cremer
• Joel Koopman

Employees who use AI as a core part of their jobs report feeling more isolated, drinking more, and sleeping less than employees who don’t.

The promise of AI is alluring — optimized productivity, lightning-fast data analysis, and freedom from mundane tasks — and both companies and workers alike are fascinated (and more than a little dumbfounded) by how these tools allow them to do more and better work faster than ever before. Yet in fervor to keep pace with competitors and reap the efficiency gains associated with deploying AI, many organizations have lost sight of their most important asset: the humans whose jobs are being fragmented into tasks that are increasingly becoming automated. Across four studies, employees who use it as a core part of their jobs reported feeling lonelier, drinking more, and suffering from insomnia more than employees who don’t.

Imagine this: Jia, a marketing analyst, arrives at work, logs into her computer, and is greeted by an AI assistant that has already sorted through her emails, prioritized her tasks for the day, and generated first drafts of reports that used to take hours to write. Jia (like everyone who has spent time working with these tools) marvels at how much time she can save by using AI. Inspired by the efficiency-enhancing effects of AI, Jia feels that she can be so much more productive than before. As a result, she gets focused on completing as many tasks as possible in conjunction with her AI assistant.

• David De Cremer is a professor of management and technology at Northeastern University and the Dunton Family Dean of its D’Amore-McKim School of Business. His website is daviddecremer.com .
• JK Joel Koopman is the TJ Barlow Professor of Business Administration at the Mays Business School of Texas A&M University. His research interests include prosocial behavior, organizational justice, motivational processes, and research methodology. He has won multiple awards from Academy of Management’s HR Division (Early Career Achievement Award and David P. Lepak Service Award) along with the 2022 SIOP Distinguished Early Career Contributions award, and currently serves on the Leadership Committee for the HR Division of the Academy of Management .

Partner Center

	University of Houston
	Jun 29, 2024   2024-2025 Graduate Catalog (Catalog goes into effect at the start of the Fall 2024 semester)     2024-2025 Graduate Catalog (Catalog goes into effect at the start of the Fall 2024 semester) | College of Education    > Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies    > Higher Education Leadership and Policy Studies, PhD This 66-hour doctoral program prepares students to conduct research and generate scholarship aimed at furthering a critical understanding of higher education and its role in society while providing service to our local, state, and national communities through the improvement of higher education, and in general the furthering of education for all people. To accomplish those broad aims, the Ph.D. curriculum in Higher Education provides students multi-disciplinary opportunities to develop specific competency in key areas. A solid framework for understanding educational challenges and opportunities; the inherently global nature of all educational experiences and their outcomes; and the critical contribution of rigorous research to adequate policy development; and the connected enterprise of increasing educational opportunity and success among schools, communities, and businesses. For more information, please visit http://www.uh.edu/education/degree-programs/higher-ed-phd/ . Admission Requirements The College of Education takes into consideration a number of criteria when determining admission, including prior college or university performance, letters of recommendation, standardized test scores and statement of intent. All applicants must abide by the minimum qualifications for admissions to a master’s or doctoral program. All graduate applicants (regardless of citizenship status) must demonstrate proficiency in English to obtain admission to the University. For more information, visit http://www.uh.edu/graduate-school/admissions/international-students/english-proficiency/ . An applicant is responsible for ensuring that all required materials for the evaluation of admissions are received by the College before the program’s deadline. If the application is not complete by the program’s deadline, it will not be evaluated for the admissions. Full details of the online application process can be found at www.uh.edu/graduate-school/admissions/how-to-apply . Applicant Checklist: Complete online graduate application including statement of interest, resume/c.v., writing sample, letters of recommendation, and application fee payment Official transcripts from all previous college/university work sent to the UH Graduate School. Official reporting of GRE scores taken in the last five years International students have additional documentation requirements which can be found at www.uh.edu/graduate-school/admissions/international-students/ GRE Waiver Option The GRE requirement is waived for applicants to the PhD in Higher Education Leadership and Policy Studies program who have at least one of the following from an institution accredited by one of the six regional accrediting associations as specified in the UH Minimum Qualifications for Admission to Master’s and Doctoral Programs: an overall undergraduate grade point average of 3.00 or higher (on a 4-point scale), or a master’s or terminal degree. Grade Point Average Requirements Admission requirements for the College of Education require a minimum cumulative grade point average (GPA) of 2.6 for undergraduate coursework or over the last 60 credit hours of coursework. The College requires a minimum cumulative grade point average (GPA) of 3.0 for graduate coursework. The College’s admission committees evaluate all credentials submitted by applicants to determine a student’s ability and potential to succeed in graduate study. In addition, the committee is interested in the applicant’s potential to contribute to his/her program of study and the University community as a whole. Please visit the program’s Admission Application Instructions page for more information Degree Requirements Credit hours required for this degree: 66.0 The curriculum for the HELPS Ph.D. program involves the completion of specific coursework that includes foundations of psychological and educational theory, statistics, and research methodology. Completion of the program typically requires three years of full time study, inclusive of coursework, candidacy research project, comprehensive exam, and dissertation. Since degree plans are enhanced periodically to support continuous improvement planning objectives, students will follow their approved degree plan that is in place at the time in which they complete an official, approved degree plan. The most current sample degree plan and academic benchmarks are provided below. In the first two full years of studies (i.e., fall, spring and summer in each year), students in the HELPS doctoral program are required to complete at least 6 hours of coursework each term (i.e., Fall, Spring, and Summer) to satisfy doctoral residency requirements. Students should reference the schedule of course offerings and, in consultation, identify the courses required for a given term. Program Core Requirements (30 hours) CUST 8378 - Current Issues in Educ Credit Hours: 3.0 CUST 8375 - Hist & Phil of Higher Educ Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 7371 - Higher Educ Law Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8331 - Finance in Higher Education Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8332 - Student Dev in Post Sec. Inst Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8338 - Admin Higher Educ Multiculset Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8355 - Policy Pol & Gov of Education Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8360 - Studies Post Secondary Educatn Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8397 - Sem Top Ed Ldshp&Cul St Credit Hours: 3.0 Economics of Education Research Methods Core Requirements (15 hours) EDRS 8380 - Rsch Mthds in Educ Credit Hours: 3.0 EDRS 8382 - Statistical Analyses in Eductn Credit Hours: 3.0 SAER 8320 - Ethnog Mthds Educ Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8330 - Statistical Analyses Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8322 - Advanced Ethnographic Methods Credit Hours: 3.0 Independent Research Requirements (9 hours min) Students in the HELPS program are required to satisfy two major research requirements: the candidacy research paper, and a doctoral dissertation. Both of these projects typically involve the collection, analysis, and interpretation of quantitative and/or qualitative data. SAER 8388 - Sem-Res Ed Ldshp Pol St Credit Hours: 3.0 ELCS 8399 - Doctoral Dissertation Credit Hours: 3 (for a total of at least 6 hours) Specialization Electives (minimum 12 hours) Students in the program are required to pursue one of the four Areas of Specialization within the program. These areas include Equity and Social Justice, International Perspectives, Policy and Politics, and Research Methods. Although all students in the program gain some background in these areas through the Program Area Core courses, students within each area add to their expertise by selecting electives relevant to a particular area of specialization. For these electives, students are encouraged to pursue coursework pertinent to their individual career goals, including courses offered by faculty within the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department as well as courses offered by other departments in the College of Education, and those related to the fields of sociology, economics, political science, and other behavioral and social sciences. These electives should be identified in consultation with the student’s academic advisor. Academic Policies Professional Development Activities Students in the HELPS program are required to satisfy a Professional Development requirement during their first year in the program. Students are required to complete a separate Residency Report for the Fall and Spring terms of their first year in the program that will serve to satisfy their doctoral residency/professional development requirement. These forms must be approved by the student’s academic advisor, the chair of the department, and the Dean or his/her designee. The following professional development activities are required for doctoral students in the HELPS program. Activities completed each term should be listed on separate Residency Reports for each term. Students should consult with their advisor regarding selection of additional activities that will augment their academic preparation in scholarship, teaching, and service, such as attending presentations of scholarly speakers at the University of Houston or elsewhere (e.g., Rice University, the Medical Center, in the community), assisting other doctoral students with data collection, etc.  Attend at least one defense of a candidacy research proposal in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Attend at least one defense of a candidacy research final paper in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Attend at least one defense of a dissertation proposal in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Attend at least one defense of a dissertation final paper in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Attendance at a local, state, or national conference that pertains to education or a relevant social science. The sessions attended may be listed as additional activities. Attendance at the Houston Symposium for Research in Education, sponsored by the College of Education, when it is offered Membership in the Graduate Students Organization Student membership in a professional organization (e.g., American Educational Research Association, American Association for the Study of Higher Education) Candidacy Research Paper HELPS doctoral students must complete a candidacy research paper before they are eligible to have their Comprehensive Examination Portfolio submission materials officially reviewed. Students are expected to conduct a research project within the general domain of higher education. The scope of this research project should be equivalent to what would be expected from a master’s level thesis. Students who previously have completed a Master’s Thesis may petition to have the thesis count for the candidacy research requirement and should consult with their academic advisor regarding this matter. College Academic Policies     University of Houston Academic Policies     Markets for Diversifying Agriculture: Case Studies of the U.S Midwest Agricultural diversification stands out as a critical strategy for addressing challenges and seizing opportunities within the agricultural landscape, especially in regions like the Midwest of the U.S. This research delves into the dynamics, opportunities, challenges, and key success drivers associated with agricultural diversification in the Midwest, focusing on three primary crops: oats, peas, and wheat. Employing a case study methodology grounded in empirical and contextual inquiry principles, the research aims to grasp the nuances of diversified agriculture. Data collection integrates primary and secondary sources, including semi-structured interviews and participation in field days. The data collection period spanned from October 2022 to February 2024. Interviews with 29 stakeholders, including farmers, industry representatives, agricultural cooperatives, and non-profits, provided insights into diversified agriculture practices. Each case study provides in-depth insights into the opportunities, challenges, and key drivers of success associated with promoting diversified agriculture initiatives. These case studies underscore the significance of innovation, market access, sustainability, and collaboration in driving success within the industry. The cross-case analysis offers a comprehensive examination of the potential for agricultural diversification in the US Midwest. Through a comparative analysis of the three case studies, commonalities and key themes emerge, shedding light on stakeholder dynamics, business strategies, operational aspects, and scalability factors. In summary, this research significantly contributes to the body of knowledge on agricultural diversification, offering insights that can guide future decisions, agricultural practices, and research endeavors aimed at promoting sustainability and resilience in the agricultural sector in the US Midwest. Degree Type Master of Science Horticulture Campus location West Lafayette Advisor/Supervisor/Committee Chair Additional committee member 2, additional committee member 3, usage metrics. Sustainable agricultural development Agricultural land planning 394 IMAGES Business Research: Definition, Methods, Types and Examples The Business Research Method What Is Corporate Research Methodology The Ultimate Guide to Business Research Methods Research Methodology Types of Research Methodology: Uses, Types & Benefits VIDEO Research Methodology Case Studies significance of business research Types of Research || Basic Research and Applied Research Types of Research with examples DIMENSIONS AND METHODOLOGY OF BUSINESS STUDIES || sem1 || Bcom ||module 5 || @viswateaching Research Methodology COMMENTS PDF Research Methods in Business Studies Research Methods in Business Studies This accessible guide provides clear and practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis, and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question or problem, choose an appropriate research Research Methods in Business Studies This accessible guide provides clear, practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question, choose an appropriate research method, argue and motivate, collect and analyse data, and present ... Research Methodology in Business: A Starter's Guide this paper is to provide new researchers with a comprehensive overview of the main. elements of research methodology, particularly in the business domain. After a brief. introduction, the paper ... Case Study Method: A Step-by-Step Guide for Business Researchers Due to the long-lasting significance of quantitative research methodology, most business researchers are trained extensively in quantitative methods as ... Ghauri P. (2004). Designing and conducting case studies in international business research. Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for International Business, 1, 109-124. Google Scholar ... Research Methods in Business Studies This accessible guide provides clear, practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question, choose an appropriate research method, argue and motivate, collect and analyse data, and present findings in a logical and convincing manner. PDF An Introduction to Business Research Put another way, in the honeycomb, the six main elements - namely: (1) research philosophy; (2) research approach; (3) research strategy; (4) research design; (5) data collection and (6) data analysis techniques - come together to form research methodology. This structure is characteristic of the main headings you will find in a methodology ... Research in Business Studies This chapter explains what we mean by research in business studies and to discuss differences between systematic research and common sense or practical problem solving. It looks at what we mean by knowledge and why we do research, examining different research orientations and approaches and the influence of the researcher's background and ... The Research Process Practical business research is often thought of as collecting data from various statistical publications, constructing questionnaires, and analysing data by using computers. Research, however, also comprises a variety of important, non-empirical tasks, such as finding/'constructing' a precise problem, and developing perspectives or models ... Sage Research Methods Covering all the major qualitative approaches in business studies (including case study research, ethnography, narrative inquiry, discourse analysis, grounded theory and action research), this practical how-to guide shows how qualitative methods are used within management, marketing, organizational studies and accounting. Qualitative Designs and Methodologies for Business, Management, and A content analysis of the content analysis literature in organization studies: Research themes, data sources, and methodological refinements. Organizational Research ... & G. Grandy (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative business and management research methods: History and traditions (pp. 33-53). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Gephart, R. P., Jr ... Business Research: Methods, Types & Examples Business research is a part of the business intelligence process. It is usually conducted to determine whether a company can succeed in a new region, to understand its competitors, or simply select a marketing approach for a product. This research can be carried out using steps in qualitative research methods or quantitative research methods. Research methods in business: Quantitative and qualitative comparative In the real business world, empirical studies could benefit from using multiple research methodologies. Thus, this editorial presents an overview of the literature on quantitative and qualitative research methods in business research to clarify some key issues on the subject. The following section introduces the papers included in the special ... Introduction to Business Research Methods Download free eBooks at bookboon.com 76 fAn introduction to Business Research Methods Quantitative research methods: collecting and analysing data In a simple index, each value is converted to an index number by dividing the data value for the case by the data value for the base period and multiplying by 100. [PDF] Research Methods in Business Studies Research Methods in Business Studies. P. Ghauri, K. Grønhaug, Roger Strange. Published 4 April 2010. Business. TLDR. This paper presents a meta-analysis of research in business from a qualitative and quantitative perspective, focusing on the role of samples in empirical research. Expand. Research Methods in Business Studies (4th Edition) 4th Edition This clear and concise guide is ideal for business students taking a course in research methods, or undertaking a dissertation or report on a work placement project. Research Methods in Business Studies shows you how to formulate a problem, choose a research method, argue and motivate, and how to collect, analyse and present the data. Research Methods Essentials of Business Research by Wilson, J. Written specifically for business students, this best-selling, jargon-free textbook highlights each stage of the research process, guiding the reader through actionable steps and explicitly setting out how best to meet a supervisor′s expectations. Easy to navigate and full of practical advice, it shows you how to choose a topic and ... Which Are the Best Business Research Methods? Survey research. Surveys are a staple among business research methods, as well as being to collect data in other forms of research such as academic studies. A survey can generate both qualitative and quantitative data, depending on the question formats used. Business and Management Reading List: Research Methods Research Methods in Business Studies. 5th edn. (Print copy) by Pervez Ghauri; Kjell Grønhaug; Roger Strange This accessible guide provides clear, practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question, choose an appropriate research method ... Research Methodology Qualitative Research Methodology. This is a research methodology that involves the collection and analysis of non-numerical data such as words, images, and observations. This type of research is often used to explore complex phenomena, to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular topic, and to generate hypotheses. Research methods business studies 5th edition This accessible guide provides clear, practical explanations of key research methods in business studies, presenting a step-by-step approach to data collection, analysis and problem solving. Readers will learn how to formulate a research question, choose an appropriate research method, argue and motivate, collect and analyse data, and present ... What is Research Methodology? Definition, Types, and Examples Definition, Types, and Examples. Research methodology 1,2 is a structured and scientific approach used to collect, analyze, and interpret quantitative or qualitative data to answer research questions or test hypotheses. A research methodology is like a plan for carrying out research and helps keep researchers on track by limiting the scope of ... Business Research: Definition, Types & Methods Business research helps companies make better business decisions by gathering information. The scope of the term business research is quite broad - it acts as an umbrella that covers every aspect of business, from finances to advertising creative. It can include research methods which help a company better understand its target market. Homepage Company reports, analysis and business research methods since 2011 by John Dudovskiy Save hours of business research by using a library of thoroughly written reports and articles. See Analytical Tools Learn Writing Dissertation Business reports on world's top companies See All Reports Why Us? All you need for your business research Trusted source of knowledge, honed by years of experience ... DBA research methodologies for Impactful Business Insights "Business research methods" suitability: Do qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods fit best? Qualitative Business Research in Practice " Qualitative research ", like case studies, offers an intimate understanding of management challenges through first-hand experiences and perspectives. Orchestrating the ecosystem for data‐driven digital services and 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research approach and case selection. This research is based on an exploratory single-case study (Nickels et al., 2022; Yin, 2018) of the companies involved in a transportation and logistics ecosystem orchestrated by a world-leading manufacturer of trucks and provider of transportation solutions. The orchestrator company was ... Research: Using AI at Work Makes Us Lonelier and Less Healthy Joel Koopman is the TJ Barlow Professor of Business Administration at the Mays Business School of Texas A&M University. His research interests include prosocial behavior, organizational justice ... Full article: Factors affecting responsibility accounting and its Utilizing both qualitative and quantitative research methods, the study surveyed employees and managers from the accounting departments of large-scale textile and garment enterprises in Vietnam. The qualitative research involved summarizing the business conditions of these enterprises, developing research models and hypotheses based on a ... Refugee and migrant women's pathways into and through prisons: A This review is situated within the border criminology scholarship that examines the intersections between migration, border control and criminal justice, where inequities shaped by gender, racial and ethnic disparities remain under-explored (Bosworth et al., 2018; Canning, 2017; Mehta, 2018).These intersections give rise to intricate inequalities and a 'dynamic system of racial and ethnic ... Higher Education Leadership and Policy Studies, PhD College of Education > Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Studies > Higher Education Leadership and Policy Studies, PhD. This 66-hour doctoral program prepares students to conduct research and generate scholarship aimed at furthering a critical understanding of higher education and its role in society while providing service to our local, state, and national communities through ... Markets for Diversifying Agriculture: Case Studies of the U.S Midwest Agricultural diversification stands out as a critical strategy for addressing challenges and seizing opportunities within the agricultural landscape, especially in regions like the Midwest of the U.S. This research delves into the dynamics, opportunities, challenges, and key success drivers associated with agricultural diversification in the Midwest, focusing on three primary crops: oats, peas ... assignment essay homework paper phd report review speech thesis