1 Yay! Welcome!
2 A journal club is when a group of scientists get together to discuss a paper. Usually one person leads the discussion and presents all of the data. The group discusses their own interpretations and the authors’ interpretation.
In written communication, the reader and the writer are equally important. Both influence the final outcome: in this case, your scientific understanding! After identifying your goal, think about the author’s goal for sharing this project. This will help you interpret the data and understand the author’s interpretation of the data. However, this requires some understanding of who the author(s) are (e.g., what are their scientific interests?), the scientific field in which they work (e.g., what techniques are available in this field?), and how this paper fits into the author’s research (e.g., is this work building on an author’s longstanding project or controversial idea?). This information may be hard to glean without experience and a history of reading. But don’t let this be a discouragement to starting the process; it is by the act of reading that this experience is gained!
A good step toward understanding the goal of the author(s) is to ask yourself: What kind of article is this? Journals publish different types of articles, including methods, review, commentary, resources, and research articles as well as other types that are specific to a particular journal or groups of journals. These article types have different formatting requirements and expectations for content. Knowing the article type will help guide your evaluation of the information presented. Is the article a methods paper, presenting a new technique? Is the article a review article, intended to summarize a field or problem? Is it a commentary, intended to take a stand on a controversy or give a big picture perspective on a problem? Is it a resource article, presenting a new tool or data set for others to use? Is it a research article, written to present new data and the authors’ interpretation of those data? The type of paper, and its intended purpose, will get you on your way to understanding the author’s goal.
When reading, ask yourself: (1) What do the author(s) want to know (motivation)? (2) What did they do (approach/methods)? (3) Why was it done that way (context within the field)? (4) What do the results show (figures and data tables)? (5) How did the author(s) interpret the results (interpretation/discussion)? (6) What should be done next? (Regarding this last question, the author(s) may provide some suggestions in the discussion, but the key is to ask yourself what you think should come next.)
Each of these questions can and should be asked about the complete work as well as each table, figure, or experiment within the paper. Early on, it can take a long time to read one article front to back, and this can be intimidating. Break down your understanding of each section of the work with these questions to make the effort more manageable.
Scientists write original research papers primarily to present new data that may change or reinforce the collective knowledge of a field. Therefore, the most important parts of this type of scientific paper are the data. Some people like to scrutinize the figures and tables (including legends) before reading any of the “main text”: because all of the important information should be obtained through the data. Others prefer to read through the results section while sequentially examining the figures and tables as they are addressed in the text. There is no correct or incorrect approach: Try both to see what works best for you. The key is making sure that one understands the presented data and how it was obtained.
For each figure, work to understand each x- and y-axes, color scheme, statistical approach (if one was used), and why the particular plotting approach was used. For each table, identify what experimental groups and variables are presented. Identify what is shown and how the data were collected. This is typically summarized in the legend or caption but often requires digging deeper into the methods: Do not be afraid to refer back to the methods section frequently to ensure a full understanding of how the presented data were obtained. Again, ask the questions in Rule 3 for each figure or panel and conclude with articulating the “take home” message.
Just like the overall intent of the article (discussed in Rule 2), the intent of each section within a research article can guide your interpretation. Some sections are intended to be written as objective descriptions of the data (i.e., the Results section), whereas other sections are intended to present the author’s interpretation of the data. Remember though that even “objective” sections are written by and, therefore, influenced by the authors interpretations. Check out Table 2 to understand the intent of each section of a research article. When reading a specific paper, you can also refer to the journal’s website to understand the formatting intentions. The “For Authors” section of a website will have some nitty gritty information that is less relevant for the reader (like word counts) but will also summarize what the journal editors expect in each section. This will help to familiarize you with the goal of each article section.
Section | Content |
---|---|
Title | The “take home” message of the entire project, according to the authors. |
Author list | These people made significant scientific contributions to the project. Fields differ in the standard practice for ordering authors. For example, as a general rule for biomedical sciences, the first author led the project’s implementation, and the last author was the primary supervisor to the project. |
Abstract | A brief overview of the research question, approach, results, and interpretation. This is the road map or elevator pitch for an article. |
Introduction | Several paragraphs (or less) to present the research question and why it is important. A newcomer to the field should get a crash course in the field from this section. |
Methods | What was done? How was it done? Ideally, one should be able to recreate a project by reading the methods. In reality, the methods are often overly condensed. Sometimes greater detail is provided within a “Supplemental” section available online (see below). |
Results | What was found? Paragraphs often begin with a statement like this: “To do X, we used approach Y to measure Z.” The results should be objective observations. |
Figures, tables, legends, and captions | The data are presented in figures and tables. Legends and captions provide necessary information like abbreviations, summaries of methods, and clarifications. |
Discussion | What do the results mean and how do they relate to previous findings in the literature? This is the perspective of the author(s) on the results and their ideas on what might be appropriate next steps. Often it may describe some (often not all!) strengths and limitations of the study: Pay attention to this self-reflection of the author(s) and consider whether you agree or would add to their ideas. |
Conclusion | A brief summary of the implications of the results. |
References | A list of previously published papers, datasets, or databases that were essential for the implementation of this project or interpretation of data. This section may be a valuable resource listing important papers within the field that are worth reading as well. |
Supplemental material | Any additional methods, results, or information necessary to support the results or interpretations presented in the discussion. |
Supplemental data | Essential datasets that are too large or cumbersome to include in the paper. Especially for papers that include “big data” (like sequencing or modeling results), this is often where the real, raw data is presented. |
Research articles typically contain each of these sections, although sometimes the “results” and “discussion” sections (or “discussion” and “conclusion” sections) are merged into one section. Additional sections may be included, based on request of the journal or the author(s). Keep in mind: If it was included, someone thought it was important for you to read.
Published papers are not truths etched in stone. Published papers in high impact journals are not truths etched in stone. Published papers by bigwigs in the field are not truths etched in stone. Published papers that seem to agree with your own hypothesis or data are not etched in stone. Published papers that seem to refute your hypothesis or data are not etched in stone.
Science is a never-ending work in progress, and it is essential that the reader pushes back against the author’s interpretation to test the strength of their conclusions. Everyone has their own perspective and may interpret the same data in different ways. Mistakes are sometimes published, but more often these apparent errors are due to other factors such as limitations of a methodology and other limits to generalizability (selection bias, unaddressed, or unappreciated confounders). When reading a paper, it is important to consider if these factors are pertinent.
Critical thinking is a tough skill to learn but ultimately boils down to evaluating data while minimizing biases. Ask yourself: Are there other, equally likely, explanations for what is observed? In addition to paying close attention to potential biases of the study or author(s), a reader should also be alert to one’s own preceding perspective (and biases). Take time to ask oneself: Do I find this paper compelling because it affirms something I already think (or wish) is true? Or am I discounting their findings because it differs from what I expect or from my own work?
The phenomenon of a self-fulfilling prophecy, or expectancy, is well studied in the psychology literature [ 2 ] and is why many studies are conducted in a “blinded” manner [ 3 ]. It refers to the idea that a person may assume something to be true and their resultant behavior aligns to make it true. In other words, as humans and scientists, we often find exactly what we are looking for. A scientist may only test their hypotheses and fail to evaluate alternative hypotheses; perhaps, a scientist may not be aware of alternative, less biased ways to test her or his hypothesis that are typically used in different fields. Individuals with different life, academic, and work experiences may think of several alternative hypotheses, all equally supported by the data.
The author(s) are human too. So, whenever possible, give them the benefit of the doubt. An author may write a phrase differently than you would, forcing you to reread the sentence to understand it. Someone in your field may neglect to cite your paper because of a reference count limit. A figure panel may be misreferenced as Supplemental Fig 3E when it is obviously Supplemental Fig 4E. While these things may be frustrating, none are an indication that the quality of work is poor. Try to avoid letting these minor things influence your evaluation and interpretation of the work.
Similarly, if you intend to share your critique with others, be extra kind. An author (especially the lead author) may invest years of their time into a single paper. Hearing a kindly phrased critique can be difficult but constructive. Hearing a rude, brusque, or mean-spirited critique can be heartbreaking, especially for young scientists or those seeking to establish their place within a field and who may worry that they do not belong.
To truly understand a scientific work, you often will need to look up a term, dig into the supplemental materials, or read one or more of the cited references. This process takes time. Some advisors recommend reading an article three times: The first time, simply read without the pressure of understanding or critiquing the work. For the second time, aim to understand the paper. For the third read through, take notes.
Some people engage with a paper by printing it out and writing all over it. The reader might write question marks in the margins to mark parts (s)he wants to return to, circle unfamiliar terms (and then actually look them up!), highlight or underline important statements, and draw arrows linking figures and the corresponding interpretation in the discussion. Not everyone needs a paper copy to engage in the reading process but, whatever your version of “printing it out” is, do it.
Talking about an article in a journal club or more informal environment forces active reading and participation with the material. Studies show that teaching is one of the best ways to learn and that teachers learn the material even better as the teaching task becomes more complex [ 4 – 5 ]; anecdotally, such observations inspired the phrase “to teach is to learn twice.”
Beyond formal settings such as journal clubs, lab meetings, and academic classes, discuss papers with your peers, mentors, and colleagues in person or electronically. Twitter and other social media platforms have become excellent resources for discussing papers with other scientists, the public or your nonscientist friends, or even the paper’s author(s). Describing a paper can be done at multiple levels and your description can contain all of the scientific details, only the big picture summary, or perhaps the implications for the average person in your community. All of these descriptions will solidify your understanding, while highlighting gaps in your knowledge and informing those around you.
One approach we like to use for communicating how we build on the scientific literature is by starting research presentations with an image depicting a wall of Lego bricks. Each brick is labeled with the reference for a paper, and the wall highlights the body of literature on which the work is built. We describe the work and conclusions of each paper represented by a labeled brick and discuss each brick and the wall as a whole. The top brick on the wall is left blank: We aspire to build on this work and label this brick with our own work. We then delve into our own research, discoveries, and the conclusions it inspires. We finish our presentations with the image of the Legos and summarize our presentation on that empty brick.
Whether you are reading an article to understand a new topic area or to move a research project forward, effective learning requires that you integrate knowledge from multiple sources (“click” those Lego bricks together) and build upwards. Leveraging published work will enable you to build a stronger and taller structure. The first row of bricks is more stable once a second row is assembled on top of it and so on and so forth. Moreover, the Lego construction will become taller and larger if you build upon the work of others, rather than using only your own bricks.
Build on the article you read by thinking about how it connects to ideas described in other papers and within own work, implementing a technique in your own research, or attempting to challenge or support the hypothesis of the author(s) with a more extensive literature review. Integrate the techniques and scientific conclusions learned from an article into your own research or perspective in the classroom or research lab. You may find that this process strengthens your understanding, leads you toward new and unexpected interests or research questions, or returns you back to the original article with new questions and critiques of the work. All of these experiences are part of the “active reading”: process and are signs of a successful reading experience.
In summary, practice these rules to learn how to read a scientific article, keeping in mind that this process will get easier (and faster) with experience. We are firm believers that an hour in the library will save a week at the bench; this diligent practice will ultimately make you both a more knowledgeable and productive scientist. As you develop the skills to read an article, try to also foster good reading and learning habits for yourself (recommendations here: [ 6 ] and [ 7 ], respectively) and in others. Good luck and happy reading!
Thank you to the mentors, teachers, and students who have shaped our thoughts on reading, learning, and what science is all about.
MAC was supported by the PhRMA Foundation's Postdoctoral Fellowship in Translational Medicine and Therapeutics and the University of Virginia's Engineering-in-Medicine seed grant, and KLS was supported by the NIH T32 Global Biothreats Training Program at the University of Virginia (AI055432). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
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Do you encounter writer’s block during the first draft of a research paper? Crafting a clear outline from your initial ideas and notes can feel like a daunting first hurdle. Many researchers and students struggle with the initial stages of research paper writing. Uncertainties about content structure, information selection, and weaving complex findings into a cohesive narrative can lead to staring at a blank page.
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Julia Simkus
Editor at Simply Psychology
BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University
Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.
Learn about our Editorial Process
Saul Mcleod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
Associate Editor for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.
On This Page:
A null hypothesis is a statistical concept suggesting no significant difference or relationship between measured variables. It’s the default assumption unless empirical evidence proves otherwise.
The null hypothesis states no relationship exists between the two variables being studied (i.e., one variable does not affect the other).
The null hypothesis is the statement that a researcher or an investigator wants to disprove.
Testing the null hypothesis can tell you whether your results are due to the effects of manipulating the dependent variable or due to random chance.
Null hypotheses (H0) start as research questions that the investigator rephrases as statements indicating no effect or relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
It is a default position that your research aims to challenge or confirm.
There is no significant difference in weight loss between individuals who exercise daily and those who do not.
Research Question | Null Hypothesis |
---|---|
Do teenagers use cell phones more than adults? | Teenagers and adults use cell phones the same amount. |
Do tomato plants exhibit a higher rate of growth when planted in compost rather than in soil? | Tomato plants show no difference in growth rates when planted in compost rather than soil. |
Does daily meditation decrease the incidence of depression? | Daily meditation does not decrease the incidence of depression. |
Does daily exercise increase test performance? | There is no relationship between daily exercise time and test performance. |
Does the new vaccine prevent infections? | The vaccine does not affect the infection rate. |
Does flossing your teeth affect the number of cavities? | Flossing your teeth has no effect on the number of cavities. |
We reject the null hypothesis when the data provide strong enough evidence to conclude that it is likely incorrect. This often occurs when the p-value (probability of observing the data given the null hypothesis is true) is below a predetermined significance level.
If the collected data does not meet the expectation of the null hypothesis, a researcher can conclude that the data lacks sufficient evidence to back up the null hypothesis, and thus the null hypothesis is rejected.
Rejecting the null hypothesis means that a relationship does exist between a set of variables and the effect is statistically significant ( p > 0.05).
If the data collected from the random sample is not statistically significance , then the null hypothesis will be accepted, and the researchers can conclude that there is no relationship between the variables.
You need to perform a statistical test on your data in order to evaluate how consistent it is with the null hypothesis. A p-value is one statistical measurement used to validate a hypothesis against observed data.
Calculating the p-value is a critical part of null-hypothesis significance testing because it quantifies how strongly the sample data contradicts the null hypothesis.
The level of statistical significance is often expressed as a p -value between 0 and 1. The smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence that you should reject the null hypothesis.
Usually, a researcher uses a confidence level of 95% or 99% (p-value of 0.05 or 0.01) as general guidelines to decide if you should reject or keep the null.
When your p-value is less than or equal to your significance level, you reject the null hypothesis.
In other words, smaller p-values are taken as stronger evidence against the null hypothesis. Conversely, when the p-value is greater than your significance level, you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
In this case, the sample data provides insufficient data to conclude that the effect exists in the population.
Because you can never know with complete certainty whether there is an effect in the population, your inferences about a population will sometimes be incorrect.
When you incorrectly reject the null hypothesis, it’s called a type I error. When you incorrectly fail to reject it, it’s called a type II error.
The reason we do not say “accept the null” is because we are always assuming the null hypothesis is true and then conducting a study to see if there is evidence against it. And, even if we don’t find evidence against it, a null hypothesis is not accepted.
A lack of evidence only means that you haven’t proven that something exists. It does not prove that something doesn’t exist.
It is risky to conclude that the null hypothesis is true merely because we did not find evidence to reject it. It is always possible that researchers elsewhere have disproved the null hypothesis, so we cannot accept it as true, but instead, we state that we failed to reject the null.
One can either reject the null hypothesis, or fail to reject it, but can never accept it.
We can never prove with 100% certainty that a hypothesis is true; We can only collect evidence that supports a theory. However, testing a hypothesis can set the stage for rejecting or accepting this hypothesis within a certain confidence level.
The null hypothesis is useful because it can tell us whether the results of our study are due to random chance or the manipulation of a variable (with a certain level of confidence).
A null hypothesis is rejected if the measured data is significantly unlikely to have occurred and a null hypothesis is accepted if the observed outcome is consistent with the position held by the null hypothesis.
Rejecting the null hypothesis sets the stage for further experimentation to see if a relationship between two variables exists.
Hypothesis testing is a critical part of the scientific method as it helps decide whether the results of a research study support a particular theory about a given population. Hypothesis testing is a systematic way of backing up researchers’ predictions with statistical analysis.
It helps provide sufficient statistical evidence that either favors or rejects a certain hypothesis about the population parameter.
The null (H0) and alternative (Ha or H1) hypotheses are two competing claims that describe the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable. They are mutually exclusive, which means that only one of the two hypotheses can be true.
While the null hypothesis states that there is no effect in the population, an alternative hypothesis states that there is statistical significance between two variables.
The goal of hypothesis testing is to make inferences about a population based on a sample. In order to undertake hypothesis testing, you must express your research hypothesis as a null and alternative hypothesis. Both hypotheses are required to cover every possible outcome of the study.
The alternative hypothesis is the complement to the null hypothesis. The null hypothesis states that there is no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis claims that there is an effect or relationship in the population.
It is the claim that you expect or hope will be true. The null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis are always mutually exclusive, meaning that only one can be true at a time.
One major problem with the null hypothesis is that researchers typically will assume that accepting the null is a failure of the experiment. However, accepting or rejecting any hypothesis is a positive result. Even if the null is not refuted, the researchers will still learn something new.
We can either reject or fail to reject a null hypothesis, but never accept it. If your test fails to detect an effect, this is not proof that the effect doesn’t exist. It just means that your sample did not have enough evidence to conclude that it exists.
We can’t accept a null hypothesis because a lack of evidence does not prove something that does not exist. Instead, we fail to reject it.
Failing to reject the null indicates that the sample did not provide sufficient enough evidence to conclude that an effect exists.
If the p-value is greater than the significance level, then you fail to reject the null hypothesis.
A hypothesis test can either contain an alternative directional hypothesis or a non-directional alternative hypothesis. A directional hypothesis is one that contains the less than (“<“) or greater than (“>”) sign.
A nondirectional hypothesis contains the not equal sign (“≠”). However, a null hypothesis is neither directional nor non-directional.
A null hypothesis is a prediction that there will be no change, relationship, or difference between two variables.
The directional hypothesis or nondirectional hypothesis would then be considered alternative hypotheses to the null hypothesis.
Gill, J. (1999). The insignificance of null hypothesis significance testing. Political research quarterly , 52 (3), 647-674.
Krueger, J. (2001). Null hypothesis significance testing: On the survival of a flawed method. American Psychologist , 56 (1), 16.
Masson, M. E. (2011). A tutorial on a practical Bayesian alternative to null-hypothesis significance testing. Behavior research methods , 43 , 679-690.
Nickerson, R. S. (2000). Null hypothesis significance testing: a review of an old and continuing controversy. Psychological methods , 5 (2), 241.
Rozeboom, W. W. (1960). The fallacy of the null-hypothesis significance test. Psychological bulletin , 57 (5), 416.
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Today is polling day. You’ll be voting in both the local and European elections. If you live in Limerick, you’ll also have a ballot paper for the first-ever directly-elected mayor in the city.
Once you’re registered to vote (and you meet the eligibility criteria for one or more of the elections), you should have received a polling card, which was posted to your registered home address before polling day.
You can still vote without one (which we’ll come to later). The card will have the name of the polling station where you will go to vote, which should be the same place as usual, unless you have moved and re-registered or are voting for the first time.
The card will also give the opening and closing times of your polling station. They all open today at 7am and will close at 10pm, after which time you cannot vote.
An important point, sometimes overlooked: you can only vote in your designated polling station.
Elections 2024: Polling day - all you need to know
The polling card is your main identifier – and your individual elector number will guide you to the right table, with each table handling a couple of thousand voters within numerical bands.
Here an official will mark you off to prevent anyone voting in your name afterwards. If your name is already marked off (highly unlikely), you’ve either absent-mindedly forgotten that you popped in before mass or else someone has stolen your vote, in which case kick up an almighty fuss.
You may be asked for further proof of your identity in order to guard against just such voter theft, which is known as personation. Valid forms of identity (and you’ll only need one item to back up your polling card) are: 1) a passport, 2) a driving licence, 3) an employee identity card containing a photo, 4) a student identity card issued by an educational institution and containing a photo, 5) a travel document containing name and photo, 6) a bank or saving or credit union book containing an address in the constituency or local electoral area, or 7) a Public Services Card.
Or you can use one of the following, accompanied by a further document that establishes your address, showing where you live in the constituency, which should correspond to the address on that section of the electoral register where you have turned up: 8) a chequebook, 9) a cheque card, 10) a credit card, 11) a birth certificate, 12) a marriage certificate.
Death certificates don’t qualify. Joking aside, these additional items should be accompanied by something like an electricity or gas bill in your name that clearly establishes your address.
Once satisfied, staff will provide you with at least two ballot papers (three in Limerick).
The ballot paper will be white for the European election and coloured for your local elections ward. Colours will vary, according to your local authority’s choosing for the locals, but the European one will always be white.
Only if you live in Limerick will you get a ballot for the mayoralty vote, and this will be pink .
You can still vote if you have not received a polling card, as long as you are on the register, but here you must remember to bring ID with you – and it would be a good idea to have two forms of this, at least one with a photo and one establishing your address.
The flippant answer is that this is up to you, but the method of voting is by proportional representation. This means we use numbers , not an X – despite Xs being how you vote in the United Kingdom, and confusingly used a lot of the time in illustrations about voting (we only use Xs in Yes/No referendums, as you will remember from March, if you voted).
Your numbers represent your preferences. This is why candidates are always seeking your No 1 vote. You put the number 1 in the box of your favourite candidate, followed by 2 in the box of your second-favourite and so on, as far down as you like.
Your least favourite person could have preference 18 if there are 18 candidates listed in total, but you don’t have to rank all the candidates in order. Every candidate you do write a number next to could ultimately benefit from transfers, more of which below.
And do not give two number 1s or anything like that – there are no tied places in your affections. All numbers must be sequential.
Don’t tick any boxes. And don’t write anything else on the ballot – not even squiggles to see if the pencil works.
Anything other than numbers could see your vote challenged and ruled out as spoiled. You have taken so much trouble to vote in the first place, it would be a shame for any of your ballots to be accidentally spoiled.
As for deliberately spoiled ballots, I guess that is a form of democracy, but it won’t count towards the election count, which is how we decide who gets in and who doesn’t.
It is here that your second, third and fourth preferences come into play. If you vote Viv Loser No 1, just because they happen to live next door, they will be eliminated after one of the counts, maybe even the first one, because of a lack of support.
Loser’s votes will then be transferred – and your backing of him will transfer to your No 2 preference: Ali Bland. Get the idea?
If you vote for Leslie Success, your ballot could be chosen as one of the surplus votes over the quota (the finishing line for a seat) to be re-distributed to the continuing candidates.
So, if you voted Success 1 and Bland 2, the latter would receive your “transfer”. And transfers are what it is all about in sorting out the allocation of seats.
That’s basically it – but one more thing. If you choose to vote 1 to 18 for the 18 candidates on your local ballot, don’t continue with 19, 20 on the European one (or vice versa).
This will spoil the vote – each ballot is separate, so you start 1, 2, 3 all over again.
And don’t forget to carry the ballots from the voting booths and post them in the ballot box.
You’re done.
Now you can sit back and enjoy the count, knowing you’ve had your democratic say. Congratulations.
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To prove vehicle ownership, it’s important to have a valid, up-to-date, and accurate California Certificate of Title. Here’s how you can transfer and change a title.
You can now transfer a title online. Learn more about the steps and get started.
Anytime there’s a change to a vehicle or vessel’s registered owner or lienholder, that change must be updated in DMV’s records within 10 days and the California Certificate of Title must be transferred to the new owner.
A change in ownership is usually due to:
Depending on the type of transfer, you might need to complete and submit additional forms. See below for other title transfers and title transfer forms.
Submit your title transfer paperwork and fee (if any) to a DMV office or by mail to:
DMV PO Box 942869 Sacramento, CA 94269
If you need us to expedite your title processing, you can request rush title processing for an additional fee.
Depending on the type of transfer, you may need to pay the following fees:
See the full list of fees .
Renewal fees and parking/toll violation fees don’t need to be paid to issue a replacement California Certificate of Title.
These forms may be required when transferring ownership of a vehicle or vessel: Application for Replacement or Transfer of Title (REG 227) Vehicle/Vessel Transfer and Reassignment (REG 262) form (call the DMV’s automated voice system at 1-800-777-0133 to have a form mailed to you) Statement of Facts (REG 256) Lien Satisfied/Title Holder Release (REG 166) Notice of Transfer and Release of Liability Smog certification Vehicle Emission System Statement (Smog) (REG 139) Declaration of Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)/Combined Gross Vehicle Weight (CGW) (REG 4008) Affidavit for Transfer without Probate (REG 5) Bill of Sale (REG 135) Verification of Vehicle (REG 31)
When you’re buying a new car or a used car from a dealership, the dealer will handle the paperwork and you’ll receive your title from DMV in the mail.
When vehicle ownership is transferred between two private parties, it’s up to them to transfer the title. If you have the California Certificate of Title for the vehicle , the seller signs the title to release ownership of the vehicle. The buyer should then bring the signed title to a DMV office to apply for transfer of ownership.
If you don’t have the California Certificate of Title , you need to use an Application for Replacement or Transfer of Title (REG 227) to transfer ownership. The lienholder’s release, if any, must be notarized. The buyer should then bring the completed form to a DMV office and we will issue a new registration and title.
Make sure you have all signatures on the proper lines to avoid delays.
Once the seller gives the buyer all required documentation and DMV receives the completed NRL, the seller’s part of the transaction is complete.
*If the vehicle has been sold more than once with the same title, a REG 262 is required from each seller.
Once the buyer has provided the DMV with all the proper documents and fees, the vehicle record is updated to reflect the change of ownership and a registration card is issued.
A new title is issued from DMV headquarters within 60 calendar days.
To transfer a vehicle between family members, submit the following:
You may transfer a vehicle from an individual to the estate of that individual without signatures on the Certificate of Title.
Submit the following:
Use tax and a smog certification are not required.
Vehicle ownership can be transferred to a deceased owner’s heir 40 days after the owner’s death, as long as the value of the deceased’s property in California does not exceed:
If the heir will be the new owner, submit the following to a DMV office:
If the heir prefers to sell the vehicle, the buyer also needs (in addition to the items above):
To transfer vessel ownership, submit the following:
After you sell a vessel, complete a Notice of Transfer and Release of Liability (NRL) within five days of releasing ownership and keep a copy for your records.
Because a California Certificate of Title is a legal document, it is important to keep it accurate and up-to-date. Here’s how you can update or change a title.
You must order a replacement California Certificate of Title when the original is lost, stolen, damaged, illegible, or not received.
To order a replacement title, submit the following:
You can submit your application either in-person* at a DMV office or by mail:
Department of Motor Vehicles Registration Operations PO Box 942869 Sacramento, California 94269-0001
If you’re submitting your form to a DMV office, we recommend you make an appointment so you can avoid any lines.
You’ll receive your title by mail 15-30 calendar days from the date you submit the replacement title application.
*If you’re applying for a replacement title and the registered owner’s name or address doesn’t match DMV records (except for obvious typographical errors), you must submit your application in person with proof of ownership (e.g. registration card) and an acceptable photo ID (e.g. driver’s license/ID card).
Visit our Virtual Office to request a replacement title online.
Your true full name must appear on your vehicle or vessel California Certificate of Title and registration card. If your name is misspelled, changes (e.g as a result of marriage or divorce), or is legally changed, you need to correct your name on your title.
To change or correct your name, submit:
You may submit your application to any DMV office or by mail to:
Department of Motor Vehicles Vehicle Registration Operations PO Box 942869 Sacramento, CA 94269-0001
If a name or other information is entered on a title by mistake, complete a Statement to Record Ownership (REG 101) .
If the vehicle has a legal owner/lienholder, then section 5 of the REG 227 needs to be notarized. If the registration does not show a legal owner/lienholder, notarization is not required.
Need help finding the lienholder on your vehicle title? We keep a listing of banks, credit unions, and financial/lending institutions that may have gone out of business, merged, changed their name, or been acquired by another financial institution.
No. You must obtain a title from the state where the vehicle was last titled.
If you’re unable to obtain a title from that state, provide documentation that they cannot issue a title. A motor vehicle bond may be required
Contact us for more information .
Fee calculator.
Use our fee calculator to estimate any applicable registration or title transfer fees.
You need to renew your vehicle registration every 1-5 years in California, depending on the vehicle. Make sure your registration is up-to-date.
Some applications can be submitted to a DMV office near you. Make an appointment so you don’t have to wait in line.
When interacting with the Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) Virtual Assistant, please do not include any personal information.
When your chat is over, you can save the transcript. Use caution when using a public computer or device.
The DMV chatbot and live chat services use third-party vendors to provide machine translation. Machine translation is provided for purposes of information and convenience only. The DMV is unable to guarantee the accuracy of any translation provided by the third-party vendors and is therefore not liable for any inaccurate information or changes in the formatting of the content resulting from the use of the translation service.
The content currently in English is the official and accurate source for the program information and services DMV provides. Any discrepancies or differences created in the translation are not binding and have no legal effect for compliance or enforcement purposes. If any questions arise related to the information contained in the translated content, please refer to the English version.
The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) website uses Google™ Translate to provide automatic translation of its web pages. This translation application tool is provided for purposes of information and convenience only. Google™ Translate is a free third-party service, which is not controlled by the DMV. The DMV is unable to guarantee the accuracy of any translation provided by Google™ Translate and is therefore not liable for any inaccurate information or changes in the formatting of the pages resulting from the use of the translation application tool.
The web pages currently in English on the DMV website are the official and accurate source for the program information and services the DMV provides. Any discrepancies or differences created in the translation are not binding and have no legal effect for compliance or enforcement purposes. If any questions arise related to the information contained in the translated website, please refer to the English version.
The following pages provided on the DMV website cannot be translated using Google™ Translate:
Google Translate is not support in your browser. To translate this page, please install the Google Toolbar (opens in new window) .
You might be using an unsupported or outdated browser. To get the best possible experience please use the latest version of Chrome, Firefox, Safari, or Microsoft Edge to view this website. |
Updated: Dec 7, 2023, 11:59pm
If you’ve decided a corporation or limited liability company (LLC) is the best business structure for your company, you’ve probably come across the term “registered agent”. When you register your business with your state, you need a registered agent. Here’s what you need to know about what a registered agent for an LLC is, whether you really need one, and where you can find one.
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A registered agent is a person or company that is designated to receive legal correspondence on behalf of the company—such as an LLC—and relay important messages to the owner in a timely manner. This includes government, tax and legal correspondence.
If you’re starting a new company and have begun researching LLCs and other business structures, you might be wondering: do I need a registered agent? The answer is yes. You are legally required to list a registered agent as part of your LLC or corporation.
There are a few legal requirements for a registered agent:
When you form a limited liability company (LLC) or corporation, you’re required to list a registered agent. A registered agent is a person or entity you have appointed to handle necessary government, tax and legal correspondence about your business. The main purpose of a registered agent is to ensure your business receives essential and time-sensitive information.
If your business is sued or subpoenaed, the opposing party will send notices to the registered agent listed in your business’s public records with the state. A reliable registered agent will let you know right away when documents arrive, giving you as much time as possible to respond. Without a registered agent, important correspondence can be lost in the shuffle of your other business mail, causing you to miss deadlines and suffer legal and financial consequences.
You can list yourself as a registered agent for your business, but this can pose some issues if you do not work from one physical location or are not present at the physical location you list during normal business hours.
You can hire a registered agent service for an annual fee. This can solve many of the problems that listing yourself as your registered agent could pose.
Hiring a professional registered agent from a service will give you the assurance that someone will always be available to receive important legal mail and relay it to you in a timely manner. Annual fees for a registered agent service average between $50 and $300 per year. Many registered agent services operate in all 50 states. If your company is registered to do business in multiple states, you can hire one company to handle all your registered agent needs.
Click on the state below to get started.
If you’re debating whether to act as your own registered agent or use a third-party service, here are some important considerations.
It can be a burden to sift through junk mail and urgent documentation you need for your company, and many people choose to outsource this task to a service they can trust to handle official correspondence. When you hire a registered agent service, you ensure that all essential documentation gets handled and relayed to you on time.
When you list yourself as a registered agent for your business, you risk exposing your personal information to public records, especially if you work from a home office.. Hiring a registered agent allows you to maintain a barrier of privacy.
In some states, legal notices are delivered in person by a law enforcement officer or process server. If your business is involved in a legal action and you’re the registered agent, you may be served with legal documents in front of customers and employees. This can be embarrassing and cause unwanted gossip and speculation. A registered agent service ensures you’ll never be placed in this position.
A registered agent is required to be present at the listed address during normal business hours.
If you work nontraditional hours, don’t live or work in a fixed location, are out of the office frequently, have an unpredictable schedule, or aren’t sure you’ll always be present in your own location f during the workweek, a registered agent service can be the solution you’re looking for. These services charge an annual fee, usually between $50 and $300. This way, you’ll ensure all important documentation about your company gets relayed to you in a timely manner.
You–or any other individual person– can only act as registered agent for your business in the state where you live. If you want to expand your company to another state, you’ll need a registered agent that lives in that state or is authorized to do business there. A registered agent service can be a good solution.
A registered agent is required when you register your business as an LLC or corporation. You’re responsible for keeping your registered agent information up to date with the state. If the agent you listed moves to a new location, you’ll need to update the agent’s address. If your agent moves out of state or the service you are working with goes out of business, you’ll need to appoint a new registered agent. Check your state’s business filing website for forms and fees for changing registered agent information. For additional info, check out our guide to why you need a registered agent.
If the registered agent you listed is not available to receive your mail, it could have negative consequences for your business. For example, you could miss important government correspondence such as annual state filings. Or you could miss a notification about a lawsuit filed against your company and, consequently, not respond on time. This could mean that a court could issue a judgment against your company before you have a chance to defend yourself. Failing to have an available registered agent could cause the state to suspend your right to operate your business.
Click to get started.
Can a registered agent have a virtual address.
Registered agents must have a physical address capable of accepting physical mail during business hours.
You can list yourself as a registered agent, but keep in mind that there are potential issues with doing so. The listed registered agent must be present at the address listed to receive government, tax and legal correspondence during official business hours. You will need to include a physical address and not a P.O. box, so listing your personal address can risk exposing your personal information to public records.
Hiring a registered agent will cost you between $50 and $300 annually.
The most significant benefit to listing yourself is cost. When you list yourself, it’s completely free. However, the downsides are that you risk missing necessary documentation or correspondence and exposing your personal information to public records that will publish the address you list as part of your LLC or corporation.
There are consequences for not having a registered agent: You won’t receive important government and tax documentation and could risk missing important notices about any lawsuits against your company. Not having a registered agent could result in the state suspending your company’s right to conduct business.
If you are frequently traveling, do not work from one location during business hours, run your company remotely or don’t want to expose your personal address on public records, you may want to consider hiring a registered agent service. Additionally, if you want the peace and mind of making sure your government, tax and legal correspondence will be received by a third party and sent to you in a timely manner, it’s a good idea to hire a registered agent service.
Leeron is a New York-based writer with experience covering technology and politics. Her work has appeared in publications such as Quartz, the Village Voice, Gothamist, and Slate.
Jane Haskins practiced law for 20 years, representing small businesses in startup, dissolution, business transactions and litigation. She has written hundreds of articles on legal, intellectual property and tax issues affecting small businesses.
With over a decade of editorial experience, Rob Watts breaks down complex topics for small businesses that want to grow and succeed. His work has been featured in outlets such as Keypoint Intelligence, FitSmallBusiness and PCMag.
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Create a research paper outline. Write a first draft of the research paper. Write the introduction. Write a compelling body of text. Write the conclusion. The second draft. The revision process. Research paper checklist. Free lecture slides.
Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature. As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question.More specifically, that's called a research question, and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What's important to understand though is that you'll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources - for ...
This interactive resource from Baylor University creates a suggested writing schedule based on how much time a student has to work on the assignment. "Research Paper Planner" (UCLA) UCLA's library offers this step-by-step guide to the research paper writing process, which also includes a suggested planning calendar.
Step 1: Introduce your topic. Step 2: Describe the background. Step 3: Establish your research problem. Step 4: Specify your objective (s) Step 5: Map out your paper. Research paper introduction examples. Frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.
Definition: Research Paper is a written document that presents the author's original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue. It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new ...
Step 4: Create a Research Paper Outline. Outlining is a key part of crafting an effective essay. Your research paper outline should include a rough introduction to the topic, a thesis statement, supporting details for each main idea, and a brief conclusion. You can outline in whatever way feels most comfortable for you.
It will save you the time and effort of redoing everything later. Once you understand your goal the next steps in writing a research paper are as follows. 2. Choose your topic. If you haven't been assigned a topic for your research paper, you'll need to choose one. These are some questions you can ask yourself to narrow it down:
Step 4: Create a research design. The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you'll use to collect and analyze it, and the location and timescale of your research. There are often many possible paths you can take to answering ...
Think about the research paper topics that interest you, and identify topics you have a strong opinion on. Choose a Topic. Once you have a list of potential research paper topics, narrow them down by considering your academic strengths and 'gaps in the market,' e.g., don't choose a common topic that's been written about many times before.
Writing a research paper is an essential aspect of academics and should not be avoided on account of one's anxiety. In fact, the process of writing a research paper can be one of the more rewarding experiences one may encounter in academics. What is more, many students will continue to do research throughout their careers, which is one of the ...
1. Research Paper Title. A research paper title is read first, and read the most. The title serves two purposes: informing readers and attracting attention. Therefore, your research paper title should be clear, descriptive, and concise. If you can, avoid technical jargon and abbreviations.
Your research paper should tell a story of how you began your research, what you found, and how it advances your research field. It is important to structure your research paper so that editors and readers can easily find information. The widely adopted structure that research papers mostly follow is the IMRaD format. IMRaD stands for ...
In order to write a research paper, you should: 1. Decide on a topic. The person assigning the paper might also assign a topic. If you have a choice, choose a topic that interests you the most. Try choosing a topic with an abundance of research already completed.
Follow the steps below to learn how to write a paper that is educational and valuable. Carefully review the paper's instructions. Select the topic of your paper. Conduct your research. Determine your paper's thesis. Build the outline. Start your first draft. Edit and revise. Review guidelines and submit your paper.
You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal ...
The typical research paper is a highly codified rhetorical form [1, 2]. Knowledge of the rules—some explicit, others implied—goes a long way toward writing a paper that will get accepted in a peer-reviewed journal. ... there is no need to be exhaustive. Also, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey literature (technical ...
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Definition: Research Paper. A research paper is defined as a piece of academic writing whereby a writer does research and writes on a specified topic, analyzes, and interprets the findings of the research. The writer needs more than just knowledge to come up with the perfect research. To achieve perfection, the author needs a positive mind and attitude and the belief that they are able to ...
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Sun and Linton (2014), Hierons (2016) and Craig (2010) offer useful discussions on the subject of "desk rejections.". 4. Make a good first impression with your title and abstract. The title and abstract are incredibly important components of a manuscript as they are the first elements a journal editor sees.
Define your specific research problem and problem statement. Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study. Give an overview of the paper's structure. The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper.
You are new to reading scientific papers. 1: For each panel of each figure, focus particularly on the questions outlined in Rule 3. 2: You are entering a new field and want to learn what is important in that field. Focus on the beginning (motivation presented in the introduction) and the end (next steps presented in the conclusion). 3
Step 1: Creating a research paper outline. Step 2: Breaking down the outline into sections. Step 3: Drafting the research paper. A glimpse into academic forums and social media gives a clear picture that many researchers across the world go through similar problems while writing the first draft of a research paper.
A null hypothesis is rejected if the measured data is significantly unlikely to have occurred and a null hypothesis is accepted if the observed outcome is consistent with the position held by the null hypothesis. Rejecting the null hypothesis sets the stage for further experimentation to see if a relationship between two variables exists.
Written by Coursera Staff • Updated on Apr 19, 2024. Data analysis is the practice of working with data to glean useful information, which can then be used to make informed decisions. "It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts," Sherlock ...
Today is polling day. You'll be voting in both the local and European elections. If you live in Limerick, you'll also have a ballot paper for the first-ever directly-elected mayor in the city.
If you need us to expedite your title processing, you can request rush title processing for an additional fee. Transfer Fees. Depending on the type of transfer, you may need to pay the following fees: Replacement title; Transfer; Use tax, based on the buyer's county of residence; Registration; Penalties; See the full list of fees.
A registered agent is a person or company that is designated to receive legal correspondence on behalf of the company—such as an LLC—and relay important messages to the owner in a timely ...
Most entry-level data analyst jobs require a bachelor's degree, according to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics [ 1 ]. It's possible to develop your data analysis skills —and potentially land a job—without a degree. But earning one gives you a structured way to build skills and network with professionals in the field.