what is a good thesis statement about body image

Essays About Body Image: Top 5 Examples Plus Prompts

Essays about body image tackle delicate subjects like insecurities and mental illnesses; to effectively discuss it with tact, see our top essay examples.

The term “body image” refers to how you see and feel about your appearance. Although many support body positivity today and push for body acceptance, studies still show that 86% of women suffer from negative body image and want to lose weight . The inability to accept oneself results in low self-esteem, stress, and depression. Picking body image as your essay topic lets you join the discussion regarding this always-timely issue. Consider the examples listed below as inspiration for your essay:

1. Long Essay on Body Image by Prasanna

2. gender and body image essay by anonymous on ivypanda.com, 3. the negative body image presented by the media by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 4. social media and body image by anonymous on edubirdie.com, 5. negative body images essay by writer valeria, 1. aspects of body image, 2. body image: the good and the bad, 3. factors affecting teenager body image, 4. beauty pageants: pros and cons, 5. body image and mental health, 6. victoria’s secret models and body image, 7. men’s body image, 8. what is body shaming, 9. knowing what’s real: curating my body image, 10. my journey to self-love.

“People have forgotten the concept of inner beauty. A person should always think of themselves to be perfect in front of the mirror.”

Prasanna explains what body image means, including its consequences in the form of disorders. She delves into how a person’s perception of their physical appearance affects their lives and how it’s now a big problem in today’s society. The author believes cultivating a supportive environment dramatically improves one’s body image. In the end, she reminds the readers how God made everyone unique in their own right and to start having a positive attitude towards their bodies.

You might also be interested in these articles and essays about appearance .

“Online blogs, television, and films all provide examples of perfect female and male bodies. When real people compare themselves to these ideals, they experience dissatisfaction with their body that results in body image issues.”

The essay scrutinizes ideals that trigger someone’s body issues, often leading to physical and mental problems. For example, today’s ideal female body is fit, with low body fat and a slim waist. Meanwhile, men should be muscular with sharp facial features. Because these are the only acceptable “right” bodies, many go through unhealthy diets, take dubious pills, and engage in strenuous exercises. The writer supports the body positivity movement that demands diversity from mass media.

See how to write an essay about diversity if you want to write about it instead.

“The media also provide unrealistic body image that no human can meet without causing harm to themselves.”

Harmful diets, dangerous treatments, expensive surgeries – people do these and many more to achieve and maintain the perfect body presented in mass media. This “false advertising” even results in eating disorders and food-related diseases. The essay adds research findings and relevant cases to support the author’s distaste for mass media’s impact on individuals’ perceptions of themselves.

“… social networking can cause an individual to set a high expectation on themselves. The media encompasses a set thought of what is attractive and what is not attractive.”

While social media is a great platform to promote healthy living, the author brings up how it also presents unrealistic body standards. Although most are thanks to digital editing, photos depicting perfect body images of celebrities, models, and influencers on social media still affect individuals’ concept of how they should look. By constantly seeing these “perfect” photos online, people turn to doctoring their pictures and deluding themselves into thinking they look like something they aren’t. Sometimes, people even go under the knife to replicate their altered photos.

“Seeing overly skinny models in the media does not enhance women’s self-esteem, self-worth or self-image.”

In this essay, Valeria shares her review of the book Understanding Negative Body Image by Barbara Moe which focuses on the culture’s obsession with weight, shape, and body image. The writer includes her favorite part of the book, where flat chests are fashionable in Ms. America. She compares it to today, where bigger breasts and thinner bodies are preferred. Valeria believes the media needs to show more diverse and realistic body shapes to reduce negative body image.

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10 Helpful Writing Prompts On Essays About Body Image

Are the samples above effective in giving you inspiration for your essay? If you’re still thinking of what to write about, you can use the following prompts:

Identify and explain the four main aspects of body image: perceptual, affective, cognitive, and behavioral. Provide examples to make it easier for the readers to understand how they differ and contribute to a person’s overall body image. Add surveys or research findings to support your statements and increase your essay’s credibility.

You don’t create your body image with your eyes alone. Your feelings and thoughts about your body are also part of the equation. These are all the results of your experiences, whether they are positive or negative. For this prompt, share any encounters that affected how you look at your body. 

Youngsters in their puberty are the most affected by today’s body image pressures. First, discuss factors that significantly impact how teenagers value themselves. Then, share steps to help young people overcome these issues. You can also write down the causes and warning signs of a negative body image.

Write your opinion about the “beauty” standards in beauty pageants and whether you favor them or not. Talk about its benefits and drawbacks to children, adult participants, and anyone who consumes such media. To demonstrate the severity of these standards, present cases where a contestant’s appearance or body became the matter in question.

The pressures of attaining a perfect body take their toll on an individual’s quality of life. These taxing pressures, such as eating disorders, anxiety, and mood swings, spill over the person’s relations and even hinder everyday living. Therefore, incorporate the importance of maintaining a positive body image to achieve healthy psychological and physical well-being.

Victoria’s Secret, a brand known for its skinny models, hired its first-ever plus-size model in 2019 . Find out why the brand made this significant change and how its customers received it. Include your opinion about the brand’s decision. Add if you believe the company did what it did to start a more diverse line of clothing or because it succumbed to people’s demand of wanting to see more realistic bodies in media.

Although most body image essays are about women, men also cope with self-acceptance. Discuss common problems men have to deal with daily regarding their appearance. Integrate how men are described in books and movies and probe how these visuals can affect a man’s ego. To make your essay more compelling, you can also delve into why there are more rigid rules on beauty standards imposed on women versus men.

Explore what encompasses body shaming and add why people do it. Relay to your readers how it affects people with a history of depression, low self-esteem, trauma, and other mental illnesses. Through this prompt, your essay will help raise awareness against body shaming. You might also be interested in these articles about eating disorders .

One excellent way to improve body image is to tailor what you see, especially on social media. Then, remind yourself that these photos are altered and unnatural. For this essay, list steps that can help protect one’s self-image away from the fake “perfect” bodies flooding mass media. For example, add joining groups highlighting edits in photoshop pictures, etc.

Everyone has something they want to change regarding their appearance. Through this essay, share what you did to overcome the struggles of accepting yourself as you are. You can also recommend books that helped change your perspective.

If you are interested in learning more, check out our essay writing tips !

If you still need help, our guide to grammar and punctuation explains more.

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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Home — Essay Samples — Psychology — Personality Psychology — Body Image

Essays on Body Image

Body image essay topics and outline examples, essay title 1: the impact of media on body image: examining stereotypes, unrealistic standards, and their consequences.

Thesis Statement: This essay investigates the influence of media on body image, highlighting the perpetuation of stereotypes, promotion of unrealistic beauty standards, and the resulting psychological and social consequences on individuals.

• Introduction
• Media Portrayals: Analyzing the Representation of Bodies in Advertising, Film, and Social Media
• Unrealistic Standards: Identifying Idealized Body Types and Their Pervasiveness
• Psychological Effects: Exploring Body Dissatisfaction, Low Self-Esteem, and Eating Disorders
• Social Consequences: Investigating Peer Pressure, Bullying, and Societal Expectations
• Media Responsibility: Discussing Accountability and Potential Solutions
• Conclusion: Reflecting on the Need for Positive Body Image Promotion

Essay Title 2: Body Image and Gender: A Comparative Study of Body Dissatisfaction Among Men and Women

Thesis Statement: This essay examines body image concerns among both men and women, comparing the factors contributing to body dissatisfaction and the unique societal pressures faced by each gender.

• Gendered Expectations: Analyzing Societal Norms and Stereotypes for Men and Women
• Body Dissatisfaction Among Women: Factors, Causes, and Consequences
• Body Dissatisfaction Among Men: Influences, Pressures, and Effects
• Comparative Analysis: Identifying Commonalities and Differences
• Media and Gender: Examining the Role of Media in Shaping Body Image
• Conclusion: Encouraging Inclusivity and Acceptance of Diverse Body Types

Essay Title 3: Promoting Positive Body Image: Strategies for Building Self-Esteem, Confidence, and Healthy Body Image

Thesis Statement: This essay explores strategies and interventions aimed at promoting positive body image, fostering self-esteem, confidence, and a healthy relationship with one's body.

• Body Positivity Movement: Overview and Goals
• Self-Esteem Building: Strategies for Enhancing Self-Worth
• Media Literacy: Teaching Critical Evaluation of Media Messages
• Educational Programs: Implementing Body Image Curriculum in Schools
• Supportive Communities: Creating Safe Spaces for Discussions and Support
• Conclusion: Empowering Individuals to Embrace Their Bodies

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Body image refers to an individual's perception, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes toward their own physical appearance, including their size, shape, and overall attractiveness. It encompasses the subjective evaluation and interpretation of one's body, influenced by societal standards, cultural ideals, personal experiences, and internalized beliefs.

The term "body image" originated in the early 20th century and emerged as a concept in the field of psychology. It was first introduced by Austrian-American psychoanalyst Paul Schilder in his influential book "The Image and Appearance of the Human Body" published in 1935. Schilder used the term to describe the mental representation or perception an individual has of their own body. He recognized that body image is not solely based on physical appearance but also influenced by one's subjective experiences, emotions, and cultural factors.

The historical context of the concept of body image is rooted in the cultural and societal values that have evolved over time. Throughout history, different civilizations and time periods have held varying perceptions and ideals of physical beauty. In ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Greece, and Rome, physical attractiveness was often associated with ideals of symmetry, proportion, and strength. These ideals were reflected in the art, sculptures, and literature of the time. During the Renaissance period, beauty ideals shifted to embrace fuller figures, as seen in the works of renowned artists like Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. However, in subsequent centuries, a slender and delicate physique became more prominent as the desired standard of beauty. In the 20th and 21st centuries, mass media and globalization have greatly influenced body image perceptions. The rise of fashion magazines, advertising, and the entertainment industry has propagated a narrow and often unrealistic ideal of beauty, emphasizing thinness and specific physical features.

Internal factors include personal experiences, emotions, and cognitive processes. These include past traumas, social comparisons, self-esteem, and the development of one's self-concept. Personal beliefs, attitudes, and thoughts about body size, shape, and appearance also play a role in shaping body image. External factors encompass societal, cultural, and media influences. Societal beauty standards, cultural ideals of attractiveness, and media portrayals of the "ideal" body can significantly impact how individuals perceive themselves. Media platforms, such as magazines, television, and social media, can shape body image by promoting unrealistic body standards and presenting edited or curated representations of beauty. Family, peers, and social interactions also contribute to body image. Supportive relationships, positive feedback, and acceptance from significant others can foster a healthy body image, while negative comments, teasing, or bullying can have detrimental effects.

Positive body image: Individuals with positive body image have a realistic and accepting view of their bodies. They appreciate their bodies for their functionality, health, and unique qualities, rather than solely focusing on appearance. Negative body image: Negative body image involves a distorted and critical perception of one's body. Individuals with negative body image may experience dissatisfaction, self-consciousness, and preoccupation with perceived flaws or imperfections. Body dysmorphic disorder (BDD): BDD is a psychological disorder characterized by an obsessive preoccupation with perceived flaws in one's appearance. Individuals with BDD may have a distorted body image and engage in compulsive behaviors or seek excessive cosmetic interventions. Body dissatisfaction: Body dissatisfaction refers to a general sense of discontentment with one's body. It can range from mild dissatisfaction to extreme distress and may be influenced by societal beauty standards and cultural ideals. Body appreciation: Body appreciation involves having a positive and accepting attitude towards one's body. It focuses on self-care, self-acceptance, and nurturing a healthy relationship with the body.

Body positivity: There is a growing movement advocating for body positivity, which promotes acceptance and appreciation of diverse body types and challenges traditional beauty standards. Supporters emphasize the importance of self-love, inclusivity, and embracing one's unique features. Body shaming: Body shaming involves criticizing or ridiculing individuals based on their appearance. It can come from societal pressures, media influences, or personal biases. However, there is an increasing awareness of the harm caused by body shaming and efforts to combat it. Unrealistic beauty standards: Many people believe that media and advertising perpetuate unrealistic beauty standards, leading to negative body image issues. These standards often promote thinness, muscularity, or other specific physical attributes, which can contribute to feelings of inadequacy or pressure to conform. Mental health implications: There is a growing recognition of the impact of body image on mental health. Public opinion is increasingly acknowledging the need for support, education, and resources to address body image concerns, including eating disorders, body dysmorphia, and low self-esteem.

Media: In recent years, there has been an increased effort to feature diverse body types and promote body positivity. Brands like Dove have launched campaigns celebrating real beauty, challenging narrow beauty ideals. The popular TV show "This Is Us" has been praised for its portrayal of characters with different body shapes and sizes, promoting body acceptance. Literature: Books like "Dumplin'" by Julie Murphy and "The Beauty Myth" by Naomi Wolf have tackled body image issues. "Dumplin'" explores the journey of a plus-sized teen challenging beauty pageant norms, while "The Beauty Myth" critically analyzes the societal pressures placed on women's bodies. Social media: Influencers and content creators on platforms like Instagram and YouTube have played a significant role in shaping body image discussions. Body-positive influencers like Ashley Graham and Iskra Lawrence promote self-love and body acceptance through their platforms. Documentaries: Documentaries like "Embrace" and "The Illusionists" delve into the impact of media on body image and challenge conventional beauty standards. They examine the relationship between media representation, self-esteem, and body image issues.

1. According to a survey by the National Eating Disorders Association, 81% of 10-year-olds are afraid of being fat. 2. Research indicates that exposure to thin-ideal media images can negatively impact body satisfaction and contribute to the development of eating disorders. 3. The fashion industry has faced criticism for promoting unrealistic body standards. In a study analyzing popular fashion magazines, it was found that 70% of women featured were considered underweight. 4. Body dissatisfaction affects both men and women. Approximately 45% of men in Western countries reported being dissatisfied with their appearance. 5. Studies show that individuals who spend more time on social media platforms are more likely to experience body dissatisfaction.

The topic of body image is an important subject to explore and write an essay about due to its widespread impact on individuals and society. Body image issues are pervasive in our culture, affecting people of all ages and genders. Understanding the significance of body image is crucial for several reasons. Firstly, body image has a profound impact on individuals' mental health and well-being. Negative body image can lead to low self-esteem, body dissatisfaction, and the development of eating disorders. Exploring the causes, consequences, and potential solutions to body image issues can help raise awareness and promote healthier attitudes towards one's body. Secondly, body image is closely linked to societal standards and media influence. Analyzing how media, fashion, and advertising industries perpetuate unrealistic beauty ideals allows us to critically examine the impact of these industries on individuals' self-perception and self-worth. Lastly, body image intersects with various social issues such as gender, race, and body diversity. Addressing body image concerns involves understanding the complex dynamics of identity, representation, and inclusivity.

1. Cash, T. F., & Pruzinsky, T. (Eds.). (2002). Body image: A handbook of theory, research, and clinical practice. Guilford Press. 2. Dittmar, H., & Howard, S. (Eds.). (2004). Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment. American Psychological Association. 3. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (Eds.). (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. 4. Garner, D. M., & Garfinkel, P. E. (Eds.). (1997). Handbook of treatment for eating disorders (2nd ed.). Guilford Press. 5. Grogan, S. (2016). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children (4th ed.). Routledge. 6. Halliwell, E. (2015). Body image: Understanding body dissatisfaction in men, women, and children. Sage Publications. 7. Levine, M. P., & Smolak, L. (Eds.). (2014). The Wiley handbook of eating disorders (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. 8. Rumsey, N., & Harcourt, D. (Eds.). (2005). The Oxford handbook of the psychology of appearance. Oxford University Press. 9. Tiggemann, M. (2018). Positive body image: A handbook of science, practice, and prevention. Oxford University Press. 10. Thompson, J. K., & Smolak, L. (Eds.). (2001). Body image, eating disorders, and obesity in youth: Assessment, prevention, and treatment (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association.

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Body Image Research

Body image: body image research, start learning about your topic.

It's important to begin your research learning something about your subject; in fact, you won't be able to create a focused, manageable thesis unless you already know something about your topic.

Useful Search Terms

Use the words below to search for useful information in books and articles.

• beauty culture

Depending on the focus your research takes, some of these terms may also help:

• eating disorders
• cosmetic surgery
• body dysmorphic disorder
• muscle dysmorphia

Use the Databases Below to Begin Learning About Your Topic

All of these resources are free for MJC students, faculty, & staff. 

• Gale eBooks This link opens in a new window Use this database for preliminary reading as you start your research. You'll learn about your topic by reading authoritative topic overviews on a wide variety of subjects.
• Films on Demand This link opens in a new window Type your search term into the search box in our film database to find short video clips suitable for academic research. more... less... Instructions for embedding Films on Demand into Canvas .

Create Research Questions to Focus Your Topic

Body image is a complex topic that is best dealt with by narrowing your focus. Do some background reading, and use the questions below to help you focus your topic. Once you have a more narrow topic, develop specific research questions (for an example, see the research questions on Body Image in our Developing Research Questions  guide).

• What is body image?
• How is one's body image developed? What is the role of family, community, and the media in creating body image?
• How do body image issues differ among men, women, teens and children? 
• How do diet, nutrition, or exercise affect body image?
• What is the connection between body image and cosmetic surgery?
• What is the connection between body image and eating disorders?
• What steps can be taken to improve one's body image?
• Based on what I have learned from my research what do I think about the issue of body image?

Explore Your Topic Further

When you are ready to explore and answer your research questions, use these databases below.

• Gale Databases This link opens in a new window Search over 35 databases simultaneously that cover almost any topic you need to research at MJC. Gale databases include articles previously published in journals, magazines, newspapers, books, and other media outlets.
• EBSCOhost Databases This link opens in a new window Search 22 databases simultaneously that cover almost any topic you need to research at MJC. EBSCO databases include articles previously published in journals, magazines, newspapers, books, and other media outlets.
• Explora This link opens in a new window Explora is a visual interface for accessing many EBSCO resources. It makes it easy for you to search by keyword or by topic to find the most useful search results. Results can be easily sorted by source type—magazines, reference books, photos, flags, etc.

Use the Web for Research

Search the web.

Use Google Scholar to find academically-appropriate Web sites.

Selected Websites

• Body Image / Our Bodies Ourselves Excerpts from the 2011 edition of Our Bodies Ourselves and links to relevant articles and sites from the Boston Women's Health Book Collective.
• Body Image / Psychology Today A collection of articles on different aspects of the body image issue from the popular magazine Psychology Today.
• Body Image / womenshealth.gov A federal government website managed by the Office on Women's Health at the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
• AboutFace.org A non-profit group advocating for reducing the media's influence on women's body image and self esteem.

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Thesis Statements

What this handout is about.

This handout describes what a thesis statement is, how thesis statements work in your writing, and how you can craft or refine one for your draft.

Introduction

Writing in college often takes the form of persuasion—convincing others that you have an interesting, logical point of view on the subject you are studying. Persuasion is a skill you practice regularly in your daily life. You persuade your roommate to clean up, your parents to let you borrow the car, your friend to vote for your favorite candidate or policy. In college, course assignments often ask you to make a persuasive case in writing. You are asked to convince your reader of your point of view. This form of persuasion, often called academic argument, follows a predictable pattern in writing. After a brief introduction of your topic, you state your point of view on the topic directly and often in one sentence. This sentence is the thesis statement, and it serves as a summary of the argument you’ll make in the rest of your paper.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement:

• tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.
• is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.
• directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to understand the war or the novel.
• makes a claim that others might dispute.
• is usually a single sentence near the beginning of your paper (most often, at the end of the first paragraph) that presents your argument to the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of the logic of your interpretation.

If your assignment asks you to take a position or develop a claim about a subject, you may need to convey that position or claim in a thesis statement near the beginning of your draft. The assignment may not explicitly state that you need a thesis statement because your instructor may assume you will include one. When in doubt, ask your instructor if the assignment requires a thesis statement. When an assignment asks you to analyze, to interpret, to compare and contrast, to demonstrate cause and effect, or to take a stand on an issue, it is likely that you are being asked to develop a thesis and to support it persuasively. (Check out our handout on understanding assignments for more information.)

How do I create a thesis?

A thesis is the result of a lengthy thinking process. Formulating a thesis is not the first thing you do after reading an essay assignment. Before you develop an argument on any topic, you have to collect and organize evidence, look for possible relationships between known facts (such as surprising contrasts or similarities), and think about the significance of these relationships. Once you do this thinking, you will probably have a “working thesis” that presents a basic or main idea and an argument that you think you can support with evidence. Both the argument and your thesis are likely to need adjustment along the way.

Writers use all kinds of techniques to stimulate their thinking and to help them clarify relationships or comprehend the broader significance of a topic and arrive at a thesis statement. For more ideas on how to get started, see our handout on brainstorming .

How do I know if my thesis is strong?

If there’s time, run it by your instructor or make an appointment at the Writing Center to get some feedback. Even if you do not have time to get advice elsewhere, you can do some thesis evaluation of your own. When reviewing your first draft and its working thesis, ask yourself the following :

• Do I answer the question? Re-reading the question prompt after constructing a working thesis can help you fix an argument that misses the focus of the question. If the prompt isn’t phrased as a question, try to rephrase it. For example, “Discuss the effect of X on Y” can be rephrased as “What is the effect of X on Y?”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? If your thesis simply states facts that no one would, or even could, disagree with, it’s possible that you are simply providing a summary, rather than making an argument.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? Thesis statements that are too vague often do not have a strong argument. If your thesis contains words like “good” or “successful,” see if you could be more specific: why is something “good”; what specifically makes something “successful”?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? If a reader’s first response is likely to  be “So what?” then you need to clarify, to forge a relationship, or to connect to a larger issue.
• Does my essay support my thesis specifically and without wandering? If your thesis and the body of your essay do not seem to go together, one of them has to change. It’s okay to change your working thesis to reflect things you have figured out in the course of writing your paper. Remember, always reassess and revise your writing as necessary.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? If a reader’s first response is “how?” or “why?” your thesis may be too open-ended and lack guidance for the reader. See what you can add to give the reader a better take on your position right from the beginning.

Suppose you are taking a course on contemporary communication, and the instructor hands out the following essay assignment: “Discuss the impact of social media on public awareness.” Looking back at your notes, you might start with this working thesis:

Social media impacts public awareness in both positive and negative ways.

You can use the questions above to help you revise this general statement into a stronger thesis.

• Do I answer the question? You can analyze this if you rephrase “discuss the impact” as “what is the impact?” This way, you can see that you’ve answered the question only very generally with the vague “positive and negative ways.”
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not likely. Only people who maintain that social media has a solely positive or solely negative impact could disagree.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? No. What are the positive effects? What are the negative effects?
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? No. Why are they positive? How are they positive? What are their causes? Why are they negative? How are they negative? What are their causes?
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? No. Why should anyone care about the positive and/or negative impact of social media?

After thinking about your answers to these questions, you decide to focus on the one impact you feel strongly about and have strong evidence for:

Because not every voice on social media is reliable, people have become much more critical consumers of information, and thus, more informed voters.

This version is a much stronger thesis! It answers the question, takes a specific position that others can challenge, and it gives a sense of why it matters.

Let’s try another. Suppose your literature professor hands out the following assignment in a class on the American novel: Write an analysis of some aspect of Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn. “This will be easy,” you think. “I loved Huckleberry Finn!” You grab a pad of paper and write:

Mark Twain’s Huckleberry Finn is a great American novel.

You begin to analyze your thesis:

• Do I answer the question? No. The prompt asks you to analyze some aspect of the novel. Your working thesis is a statement of general appreciation for the entire novel.

Think about aspects of the novel that are important to its structure or meaning—for example, the role of storytelling, the contrasting scenes between the shore and the river, or the relationships between adults and children. Now you write:

In Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain develops a contrast between life on the river and life on the shore.

• Do I answer the question? Yes!
• Have I taken a position that others might challenge or oppose? Not really. This contrast is well-known and accepted.
• Is my thesis statement specific enough? It’s getting there–you have highlighted an important aspect of the novel for investigation. However, it’s still not clear what your analysis will reveal.
• Does my thesis pass the “how and why?” test? Not yet. Compare scenes from the book and see what you discover. Free write, make lists, jot down Huck’s actions and reactions and anything else that seems interesting.
• Does my thesis pass the “So what?” test? What’s the point of this contrast? What does it signify?”

After examining the evidence and considering your own insights, you write:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

This final thesis statement presents an interpretation of a literary work based on an analysis of its content. Of course, for the essay itself to be successful, you must now present evidence from the novel that will convince the reader of your interpretation.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Anson, Chris M., and Robert A. Schwegler. 2010. The Longman Handbook for Writers and Readers , 6th ed. New York: Longman.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Ramage, John D., John C. Bean, and June Johnson. 2018. The Allyn & Bacon Guide to Writing , 8th ed. New York: Pearson.

Ruszkiewicz, John J., Christy Friend, Daniel Seward, and Maxine Hairston. 2010. The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers , 9th ed. Boston: Pearson Education.

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• How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

How to Write a Thesis Statement | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on January 11, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on August 15, 2023 by Eoghan Ryan.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . It usually comes near the end of your introduction .

Your thesis will look a bit different depending on the type of essay you’re writing. But the thesis statement should always clearly state the main idea you want to get across. Everything else in your essay should relate back to this idea.

You can write your thesis statement by following four simple steps:

• Start with a question
• Write your initial answer
• Develop your answer
• Refine your thesis statement

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Table of contents

What is a thesis statement, placement of the thesis statement, step 1: start with a question, step 2: write your initial answer, step 3: develop your answer, step 4: refine your thesis statement, types of thesis statements, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about thesis statements.

A thesis statement summarizes the central points of your essay. It is a signpost telling the reader what the essay will argue and why.

The best thesis statements are:

• Concise: A good thesis statement is short and sweet—don’t use more words than necessary. State your point clearly and directly in one or two sentences.
• Contentious: Your thesis shouldn’t be a simple statement of fact that everyone already knows. A good thesis statement is a claim that requires further evidence or analysis to back it up.
• Coherent: Everything mentioned in your thesis statement must be supported and explained in the rest of your paper.

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The thesis statement generally appears at the end of your essay introduction or research paper introduction .

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts and among young people more generally is hotly debated. For many who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education: the internet facilitates easier access to information, exposure to different perspectives, and a flexible learning environment for both students and teachers.

You should come up with an initial thesis, sometimes called a working thesis , early in the writing process . As soon as you’ve decided on your essay topic , you need to work out what you want to say about it—a clear thesis will give your essay direction and structure.

You might already have a question in your assignment, but if not, try to come up with your own. What would you like to find out or decide about your topic?

For example, you might ask:

After some initial research, you can formulate a tentative answer to this question. At this stage it can be simple, and it should guide the research process and writing process .

Now you need to consider why this is your answer and how you will convince your reader to agree with you. As you read more about your topic and begin writing, your answer should get more detailed.

In your essay about the internet and education, the thesis states your position and sketches out the key arguments you’ll use to support it.

The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its many benefits for education because it facilitates easier access to information.

In your essay about braille, the thesis statement summarizes the key historical development that you’ll explain.

The invention of braille in the 19th century transformed the lives of blind people, allowing them to participate more actively in public life.

A strong thesis statement should tell the reader:

• Why you hold this position
• What they’ll learn from your essay
• The key points of your argument or narrative

The final thesis statement doesn’t just state your position, but summarizes your overall argument or the entire topic you’re going to explain. To strengthen a weak thesis statement, it can help to consider the broader context of your topic.

These examples are more specific and show that you’ll explore your topic in depth.

Your thesis statement should match the goals of your essay, which vary depending on the type of essay you’re writing:

• In an argumentative essay , your thesis statement should take a strong position. Your aim in the essay is to convince your reader of this thesis based on evidence and logical reasoning.
• In an expository essay , you’ll aim to explain the facts of a topic or process. Your thesis statement doesn’t have to include a strong opinion in this case, but it should clearly state the central point you want to make, and mention the key elements you’ll explain.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
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• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

Follow these four steps to come up with a thesis statement :

• Ask a question about your topic .
• Write your initial answer.
• Develop your answer by including reasons.
• Refine your answer, adding more detail and nuance.

The thesis statement should be placed at the end of your essay introduction .

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Body Dissatisfaction, Importance of Appearance, and Body Appreciation in Men and Women Over the Lifespan

Hannah l. quittkat.

1 Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany

Andrea S. Hartmann

Rainer düsing.

2 Department of Research Methodology, Diagnostics & Evaluation, Institute of Psychology, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück, Germany

Ulrike Buhlmann

3 Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Institute of Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

Silja Vocks

Associated data.

The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Body image disturbance is associated with several mental disorders. Previous research on body image has focused mostly on women, largely neglecting body image in men. Moreover, only a small number of studies have conducted gender comparisons of body image over the lifespan and included participants aged 50 years and older. With regard to measurement, body image has often been assessed only in terms of body dissatisfaction, disregarding further aspects such as body appreciation or the importance of appearance. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to explore different aspects of body image in the general German-speaking population and to compare men and women of various ages. Participants completed an online survey comprising questionnaires about body image. Body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours per day participants would invest and the number of years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation were assessed and analyzed with respect to gender and age differences. We hypothesized that body dissatisfaction and importance of appearance would be higher in women than in men, that body dissatisfaction would remain stable across age in women, and that importance of appearance would be lower in older women compared to younger women. Body appreciation was predicted to be higher in men than in women. General and generalized linear models were used to examine the impact of age and gender. In line with our hypotheses, body dissatisfaction was higher in women than in men and was unaffected by age in women, and importance of appearance was higher in women than in men. However, only in men did age predict a lower level of the importance of appearance. Compared to men, women stated that they would invest more hours of their lives to achieve their ideal appearance. For both genders, age was a predictor of the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance. Contrary to our assumption, body appreciation improved and was higher in women across all ages than in men. The results seem to suggest that men’s and women’s body image are dissimilar and appear to vary across different ages.

Introduction

Many people are concerned about at least one part of their body ( 1 ). A negative cognitive evaluation of one’s body can be an expression of a negative body image ( 2 ). Body image is conceptualized as a multidimensional construct, which encompasses a behavioral component involving body-related behaviors (e.g. checking behaviors), a perceptual component involving the perception of body characteristics (e.g. estimation of one’s body size or weight), and a cognitive-affective component involving cognitions, attitudes, and feelings toward one’s body ( 3 – 6 ).

Negative thoughts and feelings about one’s body are defined as body dissatisfaction ( 7 ), which is considered to be the most important global measure of stress related to the body ( 4 ). Body dissatisfaction has been found to be a predictor for the development of an eating disorder ( 8 ) and occurs in individuals with different mental disorders, such as binge eating disorder or social anxiety disorder (e.g. 6 , 9 ), as well as in healthy persons (e.g. 10 – 12 ). It represents one of the two poles of the satisfaction-dissatisfaction continuum of body image disturbance ( 4 ), which encompasses measures of satisfaction (e.g. being satisfied with particular body areas; e.g. 13 ) and dissatisfaction (e.g. weight or muscle dissatisfaction; e.g. 14 , 15 ).

Another construct which is related to both the cognitive-affective and the behavioral component is the importance of appearance, also termed appearance orientation, which reflects the cognitive-behavioral investment in one’s appearance as an expression of the importance people place on their appearance ( 16 , 17 ). This construct was shown to be distinguishable from the construct of appearance evaluation ( 18 ), which also represents a measure of body satisfaction/dissatisfaction.

Besides negative body evaluation and the importance of appearance, a positive appraisal of one’s body also forms part of the cognitive-affective component. For instance, body appreciation is defined as accepting, respecting, and having a favorable opinion of one’s own body, as well as rejecting unrealistic body ideals portrayed by the media ( 19 ). Body appreciation was shown to predict indices of well-being beyond other measures of body image ( 19 ) and occurred simultaneously with body dissatisfaction, highlighting the independence of the two concepts ( 20 ).

In the past, studies have investigated the impact of gender and age on body features related to the cognitive-affective component. Specifically, research on body dissatisfaction has shown that girls and female adolescents (e.g. 21 – 24 ), and women of all ages (e.g. 12 , 25 , 26 ) report body dissatisfaction. While some studies revealed that the level of body dissatisfaction varied across different age groups ( 27 , 28 ), others found that body dissatisfaction remained quite stable across the adult lifespan in females ( 20 , 25 , 29 , 30 ). Studies examining other aspects of the satisfaction-dissatisfaction continuum, such as weight dissatisfaction ( 15 , 31 ) or satisfaction with particular body parts ( 13 , 32 ), also found body dissatisfaction in women. Frederick and colleagues ( 33 ) estimated that 20% to 40% of women are dissatisfied with their bodies. Nevertheless, body dissatisfaction is also reported in men, suggesting that 10% to 30% of men show body dissatisfaction ( 33 ) or 69% of male adolescents to be dissatisfied with their bodies in terms of their weight ( 34 ). Frederick and colleagues ( 14 ) even reported that 90% of male US students in their sample described themselves as being dissatisfied with respect to muscularity. In terms of body evaluation, striving for increased muscularity, referred to as drive for muscularity ( 35 ), has emerged as a central issue for boys and men (e.g. 35 – 38 ). It was shown to be distinct from body dissatisfaction ( 39 ). However, although previous studies reported that body dissatisfaction does not differ across age in women, it remains unclear whether the level of body dissatisfaction changes across age in men.

While body dissatisfaction seems to remain stable across age in women, studies suggest that the importance of appearance appears to decrease with age ( 40 ). In line with Pliner and colleagues, Tiggemann and Lynch ( 41 ) found in a group of females aged 20 to 84 years that the importance of appearance was lower in older than in younger women. For men, only one study has examined the importance of appearance, and found that it varied between age groups and reached a peak at age 75 years and older ( 42 ). To our knowledge, no other study has examined the importance of appearance in men over the lifetime. Thus, it remains relatively unclear whether the importance of appearance remains stable or changes over the lifetime in men.

With respect to body appreciation, Tiggemann and McCourt ( 20 ) demonstrated higher body appreciation in older than in younger women. Furthermore, high body appreciation was found to be protective against the negative effects of media exposure to thin models in women ( 43 ). Other studies reported that body appreciation in men and women was associated with a low level of consumption of Western and appearance-focused media ( 44 ) and correlated negatively with internalization of sociocultural ideals ( 45 ). However, studies focusing on age differences regarding body appreciation in males are lacking.

Previous studies on body image have mostly considered age-related changes in either men or women, or in particular age groups (e.g. college students, adolescents). Only a limited number of studies have compared men and women with respect to the aforementioned aspects of body image. These studies generally found greater body dissatisfaction in females than in males (e.g. 29 , 30 , 46 – 49 ). Men (vs. women) seem to place less importance on their appearance ( 42 , 50 , 51 ) and report slightly higher levels of body appreciation (e.g. 45 , 52 – 54 ). Tylka and Wood-Barcalow ( 55 ) also reported higher body appreciation in college men (vs. college women), but were unable to replicate this effect in a community sample. In contrast to this latter result, Swami and colleagues ( 53 ) reported higher body appreciation in men than in women in a sample from the general Austrian population. However, these studies comparing men and women did not analyze their data with respect to the impact of age.

Only a small number of studies have investigated the effect of age and gender on body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance and body appreciation. In a two-year longitudinal study, Mellor and colleagues ( 56 ) found that body dissatisfaction was higher in females than in males and higher in younger than in older participants. In another longitudinal study, Keel and colleagues ( 15 ) examined men and women over a period of 20 years. As men aged, the authors observed increasing weight and increasing weight dissatisfaction, while weight dissatisfaction decreased in women despite analogous increases in weight. The authors concluded that women appear to be more accepting of their weight as they age ( 15 ). Unfortunately, the mean age at the 20-year follow-up was only 40 years, meaning that conclusions could not be drawn about the whole adult lifespan. Similarly, in a large sample of men and women aged 18 to 49 years, Ålgars et al. ( 46 ) found that overall body dissatisfaction was higher in women than in men, but that only in women was age associated with decreasing body dissatisfaction, while in men, body dissatisfaction changed across the different age groups ( 46 ). However, these results have to be interpreted with caution, as the sample consisted of twins and was thus not representative of the general population.

Other studies found higher levels of body dissatisfaction ( 28 ) and lower levels of satisfaction with certain body areas ( 29 ) in women than in men. However, the latter study did not find any gender- or age-related effect on overall body dissatisfaction ( 29 ). Concerning the importance of appearance, Öberg and Tornstam ( 42 ) found that women placed more importance on their appearance than did men, and that this factor remained stable across different age groups in women but varied in men. These results are contrary to the findings of Tiggemann and Lynch ( 41 ) and Pliner et al. ( 40 ), who found that the importance of appearance decreased with age in women. However, this discrepancy may be due to the assessment method in the study by Öberg and Tornstam, as they used a single item to evaluate the importance of appearance. Hence, the development of importance of appearance in men and women across the lifespan remains unclear.

Although, as mentioned above, some studies have found that women place less importance on their appearance as they age ( 40 , 41 ), this aspect has not been examined in a large population sample comprising different age groups in relation to the impact of gender and age. Furthermore, studies comparing body appreciation between men and women across different age groups are lacking. To our knowledge, no previous study has examined body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance and body appreciation in the general population including men and women aged 16 to 50 years and older. Therefore, the present study aims to fill this research gap by analyzing these negative and positive aspects of body image in a general population sample considering gender and age.

First, based on the previous findings outlined above, we predicted that body dissatisfaction would be higher in women than in men (Hypothesis 1) and would remain stable across age in women (Hypothesis 2). As no previous study has investigated body dissatisfaction across the whole lifespan in men, we aimed to examine a potential influence of age on body dissatisfaction in men.

Second, we hypothesized that women would place more importance on their appearance than men (Hypothesis 3), but that in line with the aforementioned studies, across age, older women would report lower levels of importance than younger women (Hypothesis 4). Given the lack of corresponding studies in men, we intended to investigate the importance of appearance and its relation to age in men in an exploratory analysis. Furthermore, appearance orientation assesses the importance of appearance in terms of the extent of investment in one’s appearance (e.g. grooming behaviors) and in terms of the attention one pays to one’s appearance. However, it does not quantify how many hours or years people would be willing to invest in their appearance to look the way they want to. Therefore, as a measure of the importance of appearance, we additionally assessed the number of hours men and women would be willing to invest per day to achieve their ideal appearance, and the number of years of their life they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance.

Third, we predicted that body appreciation would be higher in men than in women (Hypothesis 5). As the aforementioned studies examined gender differences without analyzing the impact of age, we aimed to investigate potential changes in body appreciation across age in an exploratory manner.

Fourth, to take into account the well-documented increase in BMI over the lifetime (e.g. 46 , 57 , 58 ) and its potential association with the outcome variables, we examined these relations as a control analysis by calculating correlations between the subjective evaluations of body image and BMI.

Materials and Methods

Participants.

Inclusion criteria were age 16 years and older, sufficient German-language skills, and internet access. Data were collected from N = 1,338 persons. From the original data set, n = 4 participants had to be excluded due to ambiguous details about their age or invalid responses to questions. Moreover, n = 7 persons were excluded as they did not fit into the binary gender categories male or female. The final study sample comprised n = 942 women and n = 385 men, aged 16 to 88 years (total sample: n = 1,327).

Demographic Data

All participants completed a questionnaire assessing demographic data such as gender, age, height and weight, educational level, relationship status, sexual orientation, and number of children. The item on sexual orientation was optional. Self-reported weight and height were used to calculate the body mass index (BMI, kg/m 2 ).

Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire–Appearance Scales

The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire–Appearance Scales [MBSRQ-AS; ( 16 ); German-language version: ( 17 )] is a self-report questionnaire consisting of 34 items and five subscales to assess different appearance-related aspects of body image. The MBSRQ-AS has been validated for participants aged 15 years and older and for both men and women ( 16 ). For the purpose of this study, the Appearance Evaluation Scale (seven items) and Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (nine items) were used to assess body dissatisfaction, and the Appearance Orientation Scale (12 items) was applied to examine the importance people place on their appearance. According to Cash ( 16 ), the Appearance Evaluation Scale measures overall satisfaction/dissatisfaction with one’s appearance and physical attractiveness, with high scores indicating body satisfaction and low scores indicating body dissatisfaction. Furthermore, the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (nine items) assesses satisfaction/dissatisfaction with particular body areas; high and low scores are analogous to the Appearance Evaluation Scale. The Appearance Orientation Scale (12 items) evaluates the investment in one’s appearance, with low scores indicating that people do not place importance on or invest much effort into being “good-looking”. All items are rated on a 5-point Likert scale with different response labeling ( Appearance Evaluation Scale and Appearance Orientation Scale : 1 = definitely disagree to 5 = definitely agree; Body Areas Satisfaction Scale : 1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied). While the English-language version has been validated in both men and women ( 16 ), the German-language version has only been validated for females ( 17 ). In the German validation, all subscales showed good internal consistency (α = .78–.90; 17 ). In the current sample, high internal consistencies were found ( Appearance Evaluation Scale : α = .88; Appearance Orientation Scale : α = .85; Body Areas Satisfaction Scale : α = .81), both for men ( Appearance Evaluation Scale : α = .87; Appearance Orientation Scale : α = .85; Body Areas Satisfaction Scale : α = .80) and women ( Appearance Evaluation Scale : α = .89; Appearance Orientation Scale : α = .86; Body Areas Satisfaction Scale : α = .81).

Body Appreciation Scale-2

The Body Appreciation Scale-2 (BAS-2; 55 ; German-language version: Steinfeld, unpublished manuscript) assesses body appreciation in a gender-neutral manner using 10 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always). High internal consistency (α = .96) was found for the BAS-2 in an English-speaking sample of men and women ( 55 ). In our sample, internal consistency was high (α = .94), both in males (α = .92) and females (α = .94).

Investment in One’s Appearance

To investigate the amount of time which men and women would be willing to invest in and sacrifice for their own appearance, participants were asked the following two questions: “How many years of your life would you be willing to sacrifice if you could look the way you want?”, “How many hours a day would you invest in your appearance if you could look the way you want?”

Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale

The Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale (SISE; 59 ) measures self-esteem using the item “I have high self-esteem,” which is rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not very true of me to 5 = very true of me). It has shown high correlations with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and a high test-retest reliability after four years ( r tt = .75) ( 59 ).

Depression Anxiety Stress Scales–Depression Subscale

The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales–Depression Subscale (DASS-D) ( 60 ; German-language version: 61 ) consists of seven items assessing depressive mood over the past week on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = never to 3 = always). For the German version of the DASS-D, high internal consistency has been found (α = .88) ( 61 ). In the present study, internal consistency ranged from α = .89 for men to α = .91 for women (total sample: α = .90).

Study Procedure

Participants were recruited via social media, mailing lists, press releases, advertisements, and flyers and were asked to take part in a short online survey comprising different questionnaires about body image. To access the study website, they could either scan a barcode or use a web link. The online survey was set up using the software Unipark (Version EFS Winter 2018; 62 ). Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and were asked to provide their informed consent by clicking a button next to a declaration asserting that they agree to the processing of their personal data according to the given information. The survey began once participants had provided consent and took approximately 10 min to complete. Participants were offered no financial compensation for study participation. The research project was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the ethics committee of Osnabrück University.

Data Analysis

Data analysis was performed using the software SPSS Statistics (version 25; IBM 63 ) for descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and general linear models and the software R (version 3.5.3; R 64 ) with the DHARMa package (version 0.2.4; 65 ), the glmmTMB package (version 0.2.3; 66 ), and the MASS package (version 7.3–51.3; 67 ) for generalized linear models. As we intended to explore homogenous hypotheses in terms of body dissatisfaction, the power was set at a significance level of p = .10 for the variable age.

For group comparisons on demographic and descriptive variables ( Table 1 ), we calculated Mann-Whitney U Tests, as our data were not normally distributed (except BMI). Since inferential statistics for simple comparisons are massively overpowered in such large samples, we additionally report effect sizes. For better interpretability, U -values were converted into correlation coefficients r ( 68 , 69 ). For correlations between BMI and the body image variables ( Table 3 ), Spearman’s rank correlations were calculated due to non-normally distributed data.

Descriptive statistics and group comparisons regarding age, height, weight, BMI, depression, and self-esteem.

Age in years; height in centimeters; weight in kilograms. DASS, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale–Depression Subscale; SISE, Single-Item Self-Esteem scale; BMI, Body Mass Index; M, mean; SD, standard deviation; N, sample size; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; U, Mann-Whitney U test; t, t value; p, p value; r, correlation coefficient. ***p < .001; n.s., nonsignificant; + = one man reported this extreme but still realistic value regarding weight and BMI. In all general linear models and all generalized linear models, outlier detection marked him as an outlier and did not include him in the analyses.

Spearman’s correlations between BMI and the scores on the scales Appearance Evaluation, Body Areas Satisfaction, Appearance Orientation, the number of hours per day participants would invest to achieve their ideal appearance, and the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance and Body Appreciation for total sample, women, and men.

BMI, body mass index. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

For linear and generalized linear models, gender was dummy-coded, with men as the reference category. Age was centered to simplify the interpretation of the model coefficients. Due to missing data on single items within the questionnaires, the sample sizes for the initial model estimations varied, since participants were only included in the respective data analysis if they answered all items of a scale. To examine the individual impact of gender and age for each dependent variable, we started with the general linear model and inspected the residual distributions, tested statistically and by visual inspection for normality, and tested for homogeneity of variance as well as for skewness, kurtosis, and outliers (Mahalanobis and Cook’s distance, Leverage). While Cook’s distance should be smaller than 1 ( 70 ) and Leverage for large samples <3 k / N ( 71 ), a value was identified as an outlier if the Mahalanobis distances were above the critical χ 2 value exceeding the probability of 0.01 ( 72 ) and if studentized deleted residuals were larger than 3 standard deviations. The highest number of outliers was detected for the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale, with 3.36%. Comparisons of the models with and without outliers revealed no substantial differences; hence, we report the models without potential outliers, as power issues were not expected for such a large sample size and precision of estimates was prioritized. Final sample sizes are reported for each model ( Tables 4 and 5 ).

Descriptive statistics regarding the scores on the scales Appearance Evaluation, Body Areas Satisfaction, Appearance Orientation, hours of investment, and years of sacrifice, as well as Body Appreciation for total sample, women and men used in the final models.

M, mean; SD, standard deviation; N, sample size; Min, minimum; Max, maximum; Hours, number of hours per day men and women would invest to achieve their ideal appearance; Years, number of years men and women would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance.

General linear models for the prediction of Appearance Evaluation, Body Areas Satisfaction and Appearance Orientation as well as generalized linear models for the prediction of Body Appreciation, the number of hours per day participants would invest to achieve their ideal appearance, and the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, with gender and age as predictors.

b, regression weights; SE(b), standard errors of the regression weights; CI, 95% confidence interval with LL, lower limit and UL, upper limit; p, p value; Hours, number of hours per day men and women would invest to achieve their ideal appearance; Years, number of years men and women would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance. Appearance evaluation: R 2 = .005; body areas satisfaction: R 2 = .013; appearance orientation: R 2 = .052; hours: AIC = 3,418.6; years: AIC = 3,800.1; body appreciation: AIC = 2,907.8. n.s., nonsignificant; *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

For the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale, the assumption of homogeneity was violated. Therefore, a general linear model was calculated, using the HC3 method for robust estimation of the standard errors. Furthermore, due to skewness and non-normal distribution of the data, responses to the Body Appreciation Scale-2 were inverted and a generalized linear model with a gamma distribution and identity link function was used. The analyses of hours people would invest in their appearance and years people would sacrifice from their lives indicated severe violations of the assumptions of the general linear model, since their distributions were similar to zero-bounded count data. Therefore, the numbers of hours and years were rounded to integer values to enable us to calculate several Poisson and negative binomial regression models, which are suitable for count data. The fit of each model was assessed by tests for overdispersion and zero inflation, as well as by tests of residual fit using the DHARMa package. As a final model for the analyses of the years people would sacrifice from their lives, we used a negative binomial regression with a log-link and linearly increasing variance ( 73 ) and adjustment for zero inflation for the intercept using the glmmTMB package. For the analyses of the hours people would spend on their appearance, we used a negative binomial regression with the log-link function using the MASS package.

Sample Characteristics

Descriptive statistics and group differences are shown in Table 1 . Men and women differed significantly in terms of age, height, weight, BMI, and self-esteem. Compared to women, men were slightly older, taller, and heavier and had a higher BMI. This is in line with data from the German Federal Statistical Office ( 57 ), which reported a mean weight of 68.7 kg, a mean height of 166 cm and a mean BMI of 25.1 in German women, and a mean weight of 85.0 kg, a mean height of 179 cm and a mean BMI of 26.1 in German men. As indicators of psychopathology, men and women did not differ regarding depressive mood over the past week ( p = .152), whereas self-esteem was higher in men than in women.

Information about educational level, relationship status, number of children, and sexual orientation is reported in Table 2 . Of the total sample, n = 29 participants (of whom n = 23 were female) refused to answer the question regarding sexual orientation, and n = 3 participants (of whom n = 1 was female) did not state whether they had children. A recent study on the proportion of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) persons in Europe reported that 7.40% of the German population identify themselves as LGBT ( 74 ). In our sample, 10.17% reported a sexual orientation other than heterosexuality, which is slightly higher than the reported value for the German population, but can be still considered as representative.

Numbers and percentages regarding educational level, relationship status, and sexual orientation for total sample, women, and men.

N, sample size; %, percentage regarding the respective sample. In terms of sexual orientation, 29 participants (23 female) did not answer; regarding children, three participants (one female) did not answer.

The Spearman’s rank correlations of BMI with body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours per day participants would invest and years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation are displayed in Table 3 .

General and Generalized Linear Models

Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics for appearance evaluation, body areas satisfaction, appearance orientation, hours of investment, and years of sacrifice, as well as body appreciation, separated for total sample, men, and women. The results of the general and the generalized linear models are displayed in Table 5 . Regarding body dissatisfaction, gender emerged as the only significant predictor of appearance evaluation ( t = −2.012, p = .044) and body areas satisfaction ( t = 4.282, p < .001), indicating lower appearance evaluation and lower body areas satisfaction in women than in men. Age (appearance evaluation: t = −1.489, p = .137; body areas satisfaction: t = −1.605, p = .109) and the interaction of age × gender (appearance evaluation: t = 1.630, p = .103; body areas satisfaction: t = 1.257, p = .209) did not reach statistical significance. In terms of the importance of appearance, gender ( t = 6.597, p < .001), age ( t = −3.636, p < .001), and the interaction of gender × age ( t = 3.194, p < .001) significantly predicted appearance orientation, revealing that women placed more importance on their appearance than did men, whereas age only influenced the importance of appearance in men. The number of hours which participants would spend on their appearance if they could achieve their ideal appearance was predicted by gender ( z = 2.037, p = .042) and age ( z = −4.654, p < .001), indicating that women would invest more hours than men, but that with higher age, both genders would invest fewer hours in their appearance. The interaction of gender × age ( z = 0.428, p = .67) was not significant. Age was the only predictor of the number of years participants would be willing to sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance ( z = −5.828, p < .001), revealing that with higher age, men and women would sacrifice fewer years for their ideal appearance. Neither gender ( z = −0.526, p = .60) nor the interaction of gender × age ( z = 1.015, p = .310) had a significant impact on the number of years. Furthermore, gender ( t = 2.828, p = . 005) and the interaction of gender × age ( t = −2.186, p = . 029) were significant predictors of body appreciation, insofar as with higher age, women reported higher body appreciation than men, while body appreciation in men remained stable with higher age. Age ( t = 0.127, p = . 899) did not reach statistical significance.

The aim of the present study was to investigate potential gender differences and the impact of age on body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours per day participants would invest and the number of years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation in the general population.

As predicted in our first hypothesis, we found an effect of gender on the Appearance Evaluation Scale and the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale, suggesting that women were significantly more dissatisfied with their bodies than men. This is in accordance with the results of several studies (e.g. 28 , 30 , 46 , 56 ), which likewise reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction in women than in men. In line with our results, Fallon and colleagues ( 29 ) found that women (vs. men) reported higher levels of body dissatisfaction on the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale, but contrary to our study, the authors did not find an effect of gender on the Appearance Evaluation Scale. Keel et al. ( 15 ) even found higher weight dissatisfaction in men than in women, which is also in contrast to previous findings. Therefore, it might be possible that women may be more satisfied with their weight while still reporting more body dissatisfaction.

Additionally, we found that body dissatisfaction on the Appearance Evaluation Scale and on the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale was not influenced by age or by the interaction of gender and age, indicating that body dissatisfaction remains stable across all ages for both genders. For women, this finding confirms our second hypothesis, which assumed that body dissatisfaction would not be influenced by age, and also supports previous findings (e.g. 20 , 25 , 29 , 30 ). One study by Öberg and Tornstam ( 42 ) found that body satisfaction was higher in older than in younger women, which is also in contrast to our findings, as we found no influence of age on body dissatisfaction. For men, our results indicate that body dissatisfaction remains stable across different ages. This is in contrast to Ålgars and colleagues ( 46 ), who found that body dissatisfaction varied across different age groups in men. However, the latter finding might be attributable to artificial grouping strategies, as the authors investigated the impact of the continuous variable age as a categorical variable through the use of age groups. Moreover, Ålgars and colleagues ( 46 ) only assessed participants between the age of 18 and 49 years. The present study included men and women aged from 16 to 88 years, thus covering a broader proportion of the lifespan in Germany; according to the German Federal Statistical Office ( 75 ), the average life expectancy lies at 78.4 years for men and 83.2 years for women. To sum up, body dissatisfaction seems to remain relatively stable across different ages, both for men and for women.

In line with our third hypothesis that women would place more importance on their appearance than men, we found a significant effect of gender on the Appearance Orientation Scale, indicating that women indeed place more importance on their appearance compared to men. This finding corroborates previous studies ( 42 , 50 , 51 ). Moreover, age was a significant predictor of appearance orientation, as was the interaction of gender and age. Although age and the interaction of gender and age reached statistical significance, only in men did higher age bring about a lower importance of appearance. For women, the regression weights of age and the interaction of gender and age cancelled each other out. Therefore, gender was the only factor to impact appearance orientation in women, and the importance of appearance was not affected by age in women. This is in contrast to our fourth hypothesis that older women would report lower levels of importance of appearance than younger women. It also conflicts with previous findings ( 40 , 41 ), as we found that appearance orientation remained stable across all ages in women. In line with our finding, Öberg and Tornstam ( 42 ) also reported that the importance of appearance remained stable in women of different ages. They further found a small variation of the importance of appearance across different age groups in men, with the level of importance being more pronounced from the age of 45 years and older ( 42 ). However, we observed that older men seem to place less importance on their appearance than do younger men.

As the construct of importance of appearance does not reflect the extent to which people are willing to invest time in order to reach their ideal appearance, we additionally assessed the amount of hours per day participants would invest, and the number of years of their lives they would sacrifice, in order to achieve their ideal appearance. We found an effect of gender and age on the number of hours spent on appearance, but only an effect of age on the number of years which participants would sacrifice for their appearance. Women were more likely to spend more hours per day on their ideal appearance than men. However, older men and women would invest fewer hours than their younger counterparts. Concerning the number of years people would be willing to sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, we found no effect of gender, but found age to be a significant predictor, meaning that older men and women would sacrifice fewer years from their lives for the sake of their ideal appearance. This indicates that in terms of their behavioral investment regarding the importance of appearance, men and women may be more similar than hitherto assumed. Apparently, women might find it easier to relinquish a small number of hours per day to be invested in their appearance compared to men, but regarding lifetime investment, both genders might be unwilling to sacrifice years of their lives for the sake of their appearance.

Furthermore, we examined the impact of gender and age on body appreciation, and found gender and the interaction of gender and age to be significant predictors. The significant effect of gender suggested that women showed less body appreciation than did men. This is in line with our fifth hypothesis that women would show lower levels of body appreciation than men, and is also in accordance with other studies ( 45 , 53 , 76 ). However, the significant interaction of gender and age indicates that with higher age, women report higher levels of body appreciation compared to men. This is in contrast to the aforementioned studies (e.g. 45 , 53 , 76 ), but may provide an explanation for the lack of a gender effect in an English-speaking community sample in the study by Tylka and Wood-Barcalow ( 55 ). Interestingly, compared to our study, Tylka and Wood-Barcalow ( 55 ) reported slightly higher values (from 3.22 to 3.97) for their samples for both genders. Furthermore, the significant interaction in our study suggested that body appreciation also improves in women across age, and older (vs. younger) women report higher levels of body appreciation. This is in line with Tiggemann and McCourt ( 20 ), who found greater body appreciation in older than in younger women. Regarding men, as pointed out above, no previous study has investigated the impact of age on body appreciation. In our study, the level of body appreciation remained quite stable across different ages in men, and was lower compared to that of women. An explanation might be that men are possibly more affected by restrictions of their body’s functionality due to aging processes ( 27 ), whereas women may cherish their body and the remaining functionality.

With respect to the associations between BMI and the aspects of body image, we found significant negative correlations between BMI and the Appearance Evaluation Scale and Body Areas Satisfaction Scale for men and women, insofar as with increasing BMI, values on both scales decreased (= higher body dissatisfaction). This is in line with previous research, which found that BMI was positively associated with body dissatisfaction in both genders (e.g. 77 – 81 ). Body appreciation was found to be negatively correlated with BMI for both genders, which is partially in line with previous research: One study found this association for women but not for men ( 53 ), while other studies yielded mixed findings, reporting either a negative association between BMI and body appreciation (e.g. 82 , 83 ) or no significant results (e.g. 44 ). Concerning the importance of appearance, we found no significant association with BMI for either gender. In line with our results, some previous studies found no association between the importance of appearance and BMI in both men and women ( 13 , 84 ), while others reported a positive correlation for women but no significant association for men ( 85 ). The latter may be explained by the differentiation between the importance of appearance and the investment of time in appearance, as we found that BMI was positively associated with the number of invested hours for both genders, but was only associated with the number of years participants would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance in women. These findings emphasize the distinction between the evaluative perspective of the importance of appearance (How essential are my looks to me)? and the behavioral perspective of the extent of investment in appearance (How many hours/years am I willing to invest in my appearance)?. For instance, a person may place importance on his or her appearance, but as appearance is less important than years of his or her life, he or she is unwilling to invest much effort in appearance. As shown in our study, women reported quite stable, higher levels of importance across age than did men. Consequently, it might be assumed that they have to invest more time in order to achieve their ideal appearance. Nevertheless, as older men and women would invest fewer hours and sacrifice fewer years, the extent of investment or sacrifice is evidently not expressed by the importance of appearance. These results underline the need to differentiate between the importance of appearance and the investment of time in one’s appearance.

Although in the present study, women reported a higher degree of body dissatisfaction than did men, men’s and women’s responses on average lay slightly above the value of 3 on the 5-point Likert scale ( Table 4 ). This indicates, on average, neither agreement nor disagreement on the two scales (3 = I neither agree nor disagree) and possibly reveals a more neutral to slightly positive evaluation of one’s body. These results are in line with those of Cash ( 16 ) and Fallon et al. ( 29 ), who reported similar values on both scales for men and women. Therefore, on average, men and women may be neither particularly dissatisfied nor particularly satisfied with their bodies.

In consideration of all of the aforementioned research, one has to raise the more general question of whether the absence of body dissatisfaction is synonymous with the presence of body satisfaction in terms of a continuum model as proposed by Thompson et al. ( 4 ). Another possibility lies in an alternative model, in which body satisfaction and body dissatisfaction coexist alongside one another. For instance, it may be possible for a person to report high levels of overall body dissatisfaction, while simultaneously reporting high levels of body satisfaction with certain areas (e.g. “In general, I am dissatisfied with my body, but I like my legs, my cheeks and my hair.”). This could result in neither agreement nor disagreement on a continuum scale. Further research is needed to investigate a possible coexistence of both concepts.

Some limitations have to be mentioned when interpreting the results of the present study. Although several coefficients turned out to be significant, they contribute only a minimum of change to the dependent variables. In addition, according to the conventions of Cohen ( 86 ), we found very small values for the R 2 s, as the R 2 s in the present study explained only 0.5% (appearance evaluation) up to 5.2% (appearance orientation) of the total variance. Due to our total sample size of N = 1,327, the significance of the coefficients therefore might be attributed to the study’s power. Moreover, as was the case for most of the previous studies (except for 15 and 56 ), we did not investigate age effects in a longitudinal design. Therefore, it is not possible to disentangle the effects of age and birth cohorts. The effects found in this study may be related to different birth cohorts, the way in which people were brought up and socialized, or different ideals of beauty and fashion. Longitudinal studies including different age cohorts of men and women are therefore required.

Another limitation may lie in the assessment method. As younger people use the internet more frequently than older people ( 87 ), it cannot be excluded that this could have led to a stronger selection bias in older participants. Further, the online assessment may not be representative for the general population ( 88 ). Thus, there was no control regarding the implementation conditions of participation (e.g. whether there were distractions while participating) or regarding who was participating ( 88 ). False answers on variables such as weight, height, and age seem to be easier to notice in the laboratory. However, false statements concerning the variables of body image may be just as difficult to detect in the laboratory or in paper-and-pencil examinations as in online assessments. Our calculation of correlations between BMI and the outcome variables may be seen as a control analysis, as the participants’ answers on BMI were associated with our dependent variables, in line with aforementioned research.

Furthermore, our sample included more women than men. This may reflect the fact that women are more likely to participate in studies than men (e.g. 89 , 90 ). Although general and generalized linear models are able to control for different sample sizes, men and women differed significantly regarding age, height, weight, and self-esteem. While the differences in weight and height could be explained by natural gender differences, men were slightly older than women. As a further limitation, the assessment was restricted to certain body-related aspects and omitted other concepts such as the drive for muscularity ( 35 ) or drive for thinness ( 91 ). We only included appearance-related aspects of body image and body appreciation in order to shorten the length of our study and to decrease the burden of our survey on respondents. Therefore, we concentrated on more general aspects related to the cognitive-affective component of body image. Future studies need to investigate the impact of gender and age on other components of body image, such as perceptual estimation of body size (e.g. 92 ) or checking behaviors (e.g. 93 ). Although some studies have already investigated body image regarding genders other than the distinct categories of male and female (e.g. 94 , 95 ), we did not analyze these persons in the present study due to the insufficient sample size ( N = 7). Moreover, we did not investigate the relation between sexual orientation and body image, although previous studies have found indications of an influence of sexual orientation on body image ( 96 – 99 ). Therefore, future research should investigate the impact of age on body image for different sexual orientations.

In conclusion, the present study is one of the first to examine body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance, the number of hours participants would be willing to invest per day to achieve their ideal appearance and the number of years they would sacrifice to achieve their ideal appearance, and body appreciation in relation to gender and age. Body appreciation was higher in older than in younger women and women reported higher levels of body appreciation compared to men. While the importance of appearance was lower in older than in younger men and remained stable in women, neither gender was willing to relinquish a large amount of time for the sake of their appearance. Although we found higher body dissatisfaction for women than for men, both genders seem to be neither satisfied nor dissatisfied with their bodies on average. Eating disorder prevention programs, or therapeutic approaches for several mental disorders, could benefit from a more functional perspective on the absence of body satisfaction, as this does not necessarily equate with the presence of body dissatisfaction.

Data Availability Statement

Ethics statement.

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Ethics committee of Osnabrück University. Written informed consent from the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author Contributions

HQ, SV, AH, and UB planned and conducted the study. RD and HQ analyzed the data. HQ wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the compilation of the manuscript and read and approved the submitted version.

We acknowledge support by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and the Open Access Publishing Fund of Osnabrück University for the publication of the article.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.