phd is professor

Is a Professor the Same as a Ph.D.?

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Students use the term "professor" as an honorary title to describe the teacher, but colleges and universities typically use the title for instructors with the highest standing at the school. Professors typically hold a doctor of philosophy degree, or Ph.D.

Your professor can be a Ph.D. holder but, depending on where you go to school, may not have the education or the training to use the Ph.D. title. In this case, using the title "professor" to describe your teacher is honorary, but not technically the correct term to describe her academic standing.

Earning a Doctorate

American colleges award doctorates in philosophy for students completing four years of college and advanced study of at least three years in an academic field. Most universities require a master's degree before accepting a student into a formal doctoral program, but some higher education institutions combine a master's degree with the doctoral study and award the master's degree after completion of the coursework for the doctorate.

Doctoral candidates typically pass a series of written tests and an oral exam, complete extensive research on a subject and write a dissertation to receive the official Ph.D. degree. Teachers holding a doctorate typically use "doctor" as a title before their given name.

Becoming a Professor

Every school has rules for hiring and promotion, but university teachers hired on the tenure track , denoting full-time employment and the possibility of moving up in professorial rank, typically enter work as assistant professors. The teacher advances to associate professor and then to the status of a full professor after years of teaching and the promotion voted on by members of his department.

Promotion uses variations – involving the number of years in the classroom, quantity and quality of scholarly publications, professional ranking in the field and level of research excellence as a teacher – to move up the professorial-title ladder. Many universities also require service to the scholarly community to advance to full professor.

Use of the Title

The title "professor" appeared as a formal prefix early in the 19th century, but few modern professors use the formal title as a written description outside academics and work that involves scholarly research or teaching. The typical use for a modern professor includes the full name of the person followed by "Ph.D." Under the professor's name and degree, a line might state her title and field of study, for instance "Professor of American History."

Other Uses of "Professor"

Some people using the title "professor" have nothing to do with education, let alone have an earned doctorate in a scholarly field. Jazz musicians use the term to describe a player that has skill far surpassing other musicians. The expert performer gives the other musicians a lesson just by them watching "The Professor" play.

Jazzers use the term as a compliment to recognize true talent. Some professional sports players use the title "professor" to indicate the same level of mastery. Grayson Boucher took the moniker in basketball, and fans called Formula One race car driver Alain Prost "The Professor" for his scholarly approach to racing.

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Lee Grayson has worked as a freelance writer since 2000. Her articles have appeared in publications for Oxford and Harvard University presses and research publishers, including Facts On File and ABC-CLIO. Grayson holds certificates from the University of California campuses at Irvine and San Diego.

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What’s The Difference Between A Doctor And A Professor?

Every article is fact-checked by a medical professional. However, inaccuracies may still persist.

You don’t have to survive five or more years of medical school to become a doctor. Anyone with a doctorate (PhD) can go by the prefix doctor (also spelt Dr.) . But what’s the difference between a doctor and a professor?

A doctor can be someone with a doctorate (a PhD) or a medical professional (an MD). But a professor is an academic who teaches post-secondary and graduate students. Some professors have a PhD in their field, but others may hold a master’s degree instead.

Let’s examine these titles and positions to discover how they differ. That way, you’ll have a doctorate-level understanding of the differences between doctors and professors.

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What Makes A Doctor A Doctor?

Two things make a doctor a doctor. The first thing is a doctoral degree, also called a PhD. The second thing that makes a doctor a doctor is a master’s level medical degree (Doctor of Medicine).

So, if you completed a doctoral degree in engineering ( Doctor of Engineering ), you could start asking your friends and family members to refer you to you as a Doctor. But if you finished medical school and earned a Doctor of Medicine, you could also go by Doctor [Your Name Here].

What Makes Someone A Professor?

A professor is someone who teaches post-secondary education to college and graduate students. Most professors are considered experts in their field, with many years of research and study under their belt.

Notably, many professors hold doctorate degrees. As such, they may opt to go by Doctor instead of Professor. However, because the title of Professor has greater weight than Doctor, many tenured professors prefer to go by Professor [Last Name] instead of Doctor [Last Name].

The Difference Between Medical Doctors And Professors

The difference between medical doctors and professors is significant. After all, medical doctors are responsible for keeping people healthy, whereas professors are responsible for educating students and performing in-depth research.

Still, let’s take a closer look at these types of professionals to learn more about how they differ.

Medical Doctors Vs. Professors: Education

You might need to spend six or seven years in post-secondary education to become a professor. However, you’ll need to spend between 11 and 15 years in college and medical school to become a medical doctor.

After all, medical doctors have the lives of patients in their hands. One wrong move or diagnosis could result in death or a medical malpractice lawsuit. For these reasons, students training to become medical doctors require several years of additional study and hands-on education.

But while it might be a little easier to become a professor, those who invest the time and energy to become medical doctors are bound to enjoy their post-schooling salary.

Medical Doctors Vs. Professors: Salary

Medical doctors and professors may spend the same amount of time pursuing post-secondary and post-graduate education. But when they enter the workforce, they earn very different salaries.

A physician’s average annual salary is about £76,000, but a professor’s annual salary is almost half. Additionally, professors without tenure or much teaching experience can earn as little as £26,000 per year.

Essentially, most medical doctors out-earn professors.

Medical Doctors Vs. Professors: Duties

When it comes to occupational tasks and duties, the differences between medical doctors and professors could not be more apparent.

Medical doctors care for their patient’s health and wellbeing, diagnosing illnesses and administering treatments. They also continually research emerging medical trends and diseases, keeping them up to date with new practices and treatment options.

If you want to see what a typical day in the life of a medical doctor is like, check out this article on the duties of a junior doctor.

However, most professors don’t share these duties. Instead, most professors are responsible for educating. These individuals create and give lectures, structure classes and exams, and mentor post-graduate students.

Still, a medical doctor who teaches medical students fulfils all of these duties.

The Difference Between PhD Doctors And Professors

Now that we’ve fully explored the differences between medical doctors and professors, let’s examine the difference between PhD doctors and professors.

PhD Doctors Vs. Professors: Education

Though professors are often some of the most learned and studious individuals, not all professors hold a PhD in their chosen field of study. Some professors have a master’s degree instead.

To get a master’s degree, you’ll have to finish at least four years of undergraduate study, earn your bachelor’s degree, and then pursue another two to three years of post-graduate education. But to get a PhD, you might need to spend between four and six years as a post-graduate student.

Consequently, those with a PhD may be better educated, or, at least, will have been in school for a longer period than professors without a doctoral degree.

PhD Doctors Vs. Professors: Salary

Professors and individuals with doctoral degrees tend to earn a similar annual salary. Naturally, precise salary estimates vary depending on the person’s field of study and location. For example, someone with a Ph.D. in law might earn between $186,000 and $370,000 each year in the US.

But this range applies to individuals who are working as general counsel.

On the other hand, a Professor of Law with the same degree might only earn between $64,000 and $170,000 each year. Still, the average annual salary for someone with a Ph.D. is about $98,000 .

PhD Doctors Vs. Professors: Duties

Individuals with a PhD are typically involved in the academic and research areas of their field, which is why many doctors with a PhD end up becoming tenured professors. Still, the specific duties that a PhD doctor undertakes can vary from a professor’s duties.

Generally, professors are responsible for creating course curriculums, giving lectures, instructing students, and grading student work. Many professors are also actively engaged in ongoing research related to their field.

They may also mentor specific students, particularly graduate students engaged in high-level research.

However, someone with a PhD might have different occupational duties, depending on their field. For example, someone with a PhD in engineering might decide to teach engineering at a university.

Or they might also use their degree to obtain a position as a well-paid engineer.

Final Thoughts

Doctors and professors differ in several ways.

Medical doctors work with patients in the healthcare industry, but those who hold the title of Doctor aren’t always healthcare professionals. That’s because anyone with a doctorate degree can go by Doctor.

Someone with the title of Professor is a highly educated master of their subject matter. While some professors may have doctorate degrees, not all do. However, a professor with a PhD may go by Professor or Doctor.

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What Should You Call a Professor?

By Dr Harry Hothi
August 18, 2020

As you progress through your higher education at university, you’re going to come across many different academic job titles. Most you’ll have heard of already, some you won’t have; our guide on this will help you better understand what each of these mean.

Another thing you’ll soon realise is that within STEM subjects at university, virtually all of the academics delivering lectures and supervising undergraduate, postgraduate and PhD projects have PhDs or similar research degrees such as a DPhil.

If you take a look at their university profile pages, some academics have Dr. in front of their names whilst others have Professor (sometimes shortened to Prof). This can start to get confusing, especially if you’re planning your first one-on-one meeting with the academic, perhaps to start a research project under their supervision; what do you call them? How do you address them?

Let’s say your supervisor’s name is James Bond and they have a PhD; should you call him Mr Bond, Dr Bond, Professor Bond or simply James? The easiest way to definitively answer that question would be to just ask your supervisor what he’d prefer (he’ll probably correct you if you get it completely wrong anyway!).

It is important though that you have an understanding of the significance of these different terms and why formally you might call someone with a PhD a Doctor, whilst someone else who also has a PhD could be a Professor.

To help you with this, I’ve written a list of answers to the most commonly asked questions I’ve heard around the subject.

If someone has a PhD, are they a Doctor?

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. If an individual holds a PhD degree, common terminology dictates that they have a doctorate, doctoral degree or a PhD in XXXX (fill in the blank here, e.g. PhD in Materials Science). PhD holders are entitled to write doctor (shortened to Dr) in front of their names and so may be called Dr. Surname. An individual with a PhD is not a Medical Doctor unless they also hold a medical degree, such as an MBBS in the UK.

How do you to address someone with a PhD?

Someone with a PhD can use the title Dr. Surname and your safest bet as a student would be to use this term when meeting a PhD holder within a formal academic or research setting; they may ask you to just use their first name or tell you that it’s actually Professor Surname! In job environments where a PhD is of less direct significance to the office environment (e.g. a Maths PhD working in banking), it’s less likely that an individual would use the doctor title in their name and you may not even know that they hold a PhD.

Do you call a Professor with a PhD a Doctor?

The distinction to be clear of here is that the title of Dr. is used to denote a PhD degree holder (or a similar doctoral degree) whilst the title of Professor is an academic job title given to an individual employed by the University as a Professor. If an academic uses the title Professor, then they should be called Professor Surname even if they have a PhD, which most STEM Professors will. It’s accepted that the title of Professor is higher than a Doctor.

Who can be called a Professor?

An academic should only be called Professor Surname if they hold the job title of professor at a university. Some universities in the UK and elsewhere also employ academics as associate professors, typically the equivalent to senior lecturers, in addition to full professors. However usually only full professors are addressed as Professor Surname.

Do you need a PhD to be a Professor?

In most STEM subjects, holding a PhD or equivalent doctoral degree is essentially a pre-requisite to becoming a professor. However, you do not always need a PhD to be a professor in other disciplines; there are certainly very successful professors within the area of modern languages, for example, that hold Master’s level degrees but not doctorates.

Is a Professor higher than a Doctor?

It is widely accepted that the academic title of Professor is higher than a Doctor, given that the job title of professor is the highest academic position possible at a university. Remember that the Doctor title here refers specially to a PhD (or equivalent doctoral degree) holder and not a medical doctor. There are certainly many examples of medical doctors holding both their medical degree (e.g. MBBS) and a PhD; these are clearly highly motivated, research minded doctors, many of whom balance their clinical work with work as a senior lecturer or even go on to become a professor themselves.

This post should answer most, if not all, of the questions you had about the use of Professor and Doctor titles within a university setting. Do check out our article on the hierarchy of academic job titles in the UK and feel free to get in touch if you have any more questions.

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Do You Need a PhD to Be a Professor?

If you want to work in higher education, you may be wondering, “Do you need a PhD to be a professor?”

Professors are experts in their fields who teach courses, conduct research, and support their academic institutions.

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The type of degree that’s required to work as a professor depends on where you work and what types of courses you want to teach. Learning how to become a college professor is vital if you hope to serve as a faculty member at a college or university.

You don’t necessarily need a PhD to become a professor. Colleges and universities often hire professors with other types of degrees. In that case, what degree do you need to be a professor?

Graduates of master’s programs are often qualified to work as professors, particularly at two-year institutions. These professionals may have more limited responsibilities than professors with PhDs, and they are sometimes limited to teaching introductory courses.

Schools that require professors to hold a doctoral degree may accept another type of professor degree from an accredited university. These are some of the professional doctorate degrees that prospective employers may consider in place of a PhD:

Doctor of Education
Doctor of Arts
Doctor of Business Administration
Doctor of Public Health
Doctor of Science
Doctor of Chemistry
Doctor of Medicine

Job candidates who don’t hold a PhD may be able to strengthen their candidacy for a position with professional experience. Publishing articles or books that contribute to the field is also beneficial, as it reflects a high level of expertise.

The education requirement for a career as a professor differs between colleges, so it’s essential to review each institution’s policy before applying for a position.

How to Become a Professor

Professor discussing with university students

Becoming a professor requires a series of academic and professional steps, including:

Earning a bachelor’s degree . The pursuit of a professor position begins with a bachelor’s degree. Although it’s helpful to select a field that’s related to your career goal, bachelors programs are an opportunity to explore your interests, and many master’s programs accept students with various degrees.
Entering graduate school . Some students complete separate master’s and PhD programs. Others enroll in accelerated programs and earn their master’s degree while also working toward their PhD.
Taking comprehensive exams . Once you have completed your coursework, you will take a series of exams covering the material you studied. The exam may take the form of a written or oral test, portfolio, or research paper.
Completing a dissertation . Most PhD programs require students to complete a dissertation, an extensive project that may require several years of research and writing. The final stage of a dissertation is typically the oral defense, during which you present your paper and findings to a committee of faculty and answer their questions.
Gaining experience . It may be beneficial to work as a lecturer or adjunct instructor prior to becoming a professor. This offers evidence of your teaching skills to prospective employers.
Applying for positions . Even if your doctoral degree is not yet completed, you can begin applying for professor positions while working on your dissertation. The hiring process generally includes submitting an application, a curriculum vitae, and letters of recommendation as well as participating in an interview and presentation or teaching demonstration.

It can be competitive to find a position as a professor, so it may be necessary to apply for positions at multiple schools before finding the right role.

Are All Professors Doctors?

Not all professors are doctors, but many are. Professors are only considered doctors if they hold a doctoral degree, such as a PhD or professional doctorate.

Professors with masters degrees are not classified or addressed as doctors. Because professors need a high level of knowledge and experience in their field, a PhD is a common requirement for this type of position. Many prominent schools only hire graduates of PhD programs for full-time roles as professors.

Is a PhD a Doctor?

PhD degree student researching in the library

A person who holds a PhD is a doctor , but they hold a Doctor of Philosophy rather than a Doctor of Medicine. Medical doctors, or MDs, treat patients, diagnose health conditions, and study diseases, and they complete their degrees at medical schools.

Some PhDs specialize in medicine or health care, but PhDs can also be members of many other fields. For example, a student might obtain a PhD in Sociology, Business Administration, or Higher Education. Online PhD programs are available at a variety of colleges and universities.

What Can You Get a PhD In?

Professor with PhD degree in engineering

Doctoral degrees are offered in many disciplines, including:

Sciences . Students can pursue degrees in subjects such as physics, chemistry, and engineering.
Health care . Physical therapy and audiology are potential areas of study for students hoping to work in health care.
Education . A PhD in Education may help you advance in your teaching career or become a school administrator.
Psychology . Programs in psychology are ideal for students who want to work as psychologists or researchers.
English . Many schools offer English PhDs focused on literature, while others emphasize writing and rhetoric.

When choosing what PhD you can get in , it helps to consider your academic background and interests.

Can You Be a Professor with a Masters?

Professor giving test papers to college students

Yes, you can be a professor with a master’s degree. Many schools hire professionals with master’s degrees to serve as entry-level instructors.

Community colleges and two-year institutions are especially popular employers for graduates of master’s programs. Four year colleges may also hire job candidates with master’s degrees, but they often work as adjuncts rather than as full-time employees. Adjuncts have temporary positions and may not receive benefits.

Because of the high level of competition for academic positions in certain disciplines, it may be easier to get a job as a professor with a Ph.D. rather than a master’s degree.

What Does a Professor Do?

Professor distributing handouts to class

Professors have a wide range of responsibilities. Most people in this role are responsible for teaching several courses within their discipline. They may also develop or update curriculum and assessments for their departments.

In addition to teaching, professors usually offer advising to students and supervise their graduate research projects, such as dissertations. They often join college committees that focus on improving practices and policies within the institution.

Many professors also conduct original research and write journal articles for publication. These contributions are often a requirement for receiving tenure.

How Much Do College Professors Make?

The salary for a postsecondary teacher can differ based on your location, the specific school where you work, your level of experience, and your discipline or specialization.

For example, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics , the median annual salary for engineering professors is $103,550. This is higher than the median wage for business professors, which is $88,790. Some professors who want to work outside of the classroom become instructional coordinators. Professionals in this area earn median salaries of $66,490 per year.

A career as a professor may eventually lead to a job as a postsecondary education administrator. The median salary for this type of position is $99,940.

What’s the Difference Between an Assistant vs. Associate Professor?

Although they both teach courses at the college level, assistant and associate professors have separate roles with notable differences.

Many professors are initially hired as assistant professors and progress to become associate professors.

Becoming a Professor

Professor discussing with students taking PhD degree

Do you need a doctorate to be a professor? The answer to this question changes based on the requirements of each specific academic institution.

No matter where you hope to work, certain steps are necessary before you can work as a professor. The path generally begins with a bachelor’s degree and culminates with a master’s degree or a doctoral degree, such as a PhD.

Whether you’re considering different bachelors degrees or are ready to enroll in a PhD program, you can begin your journey toward becoming a professor by researching accredited colleges and universities.

American Academic Job Titles Explained

What's the difference between an assistant professor and an associate professor? What about an adjunct professor and a visiting assistant professor? Here's a breakdown of the most common academic job titles used in the USA and Canada.

PhD Student

A PhD is required to work as a professor or researcher in many fields in the US and Canada. Broady speaking, the path to a PhD consists of two to three years of coursework followed by qualification exams and then the writing and defending of a dissertation. Many North American PhD programs require that students to gain teaching experience as well, often as teaching assistants. PhD students do have to pay tuition at American and Canadian universities although many top programs include tuition waiver in their funding packages. PhDs can be funded by the university, external fellowships, personal loans, or a combination of the three. The amount of time it takes to earn a PhD depends on the field, but the average is six years. A Master’s degree is not always a necessary prerequisite for a PhD in North America. Many universities offer direct entry PhD programs which means that students are also awarded a Master’s degree after they have completed certain courses or exams.

Postdoctoral Researcher/Fellow/Scholar

After earning a PhD, the next step in the academic career path is often a postdoc. Postdocs used to just be part of the STEM career path, but these types of positions have started to become more common in the humanities as well. A postdoc is a continuation of a researcher’s training that allows them to further their professional development and start to transition from student to independent researcher. Postdocs also often take additional leadership or teaching responsibilities in their lab or department. These positions are usually two to three years and it is not unusual for a researcher to do more than one postdoc. In Canada postdocs must be within five years of earning their PhD, while there is no limit on how long you can be a postdoc in the United States.

Tenure Track

An academic on the “tenure track” is on the path to a permanent professor position at their university. They will be expected to go up for "review" five to seven years after they start their position at the university. The tenure committee will evaluates the quality of the candidate’s teaching, research, publication record, and service to the university. If the candidate is successful, they are awarded tenure which provides them lifetime employment at their university.

Assistant Professor

This is the entry-level tenure track position. The position comprises of teaching, research and service to the institution (such as being a member of various university committees) and different universities will emphasize different components more. Assistant professors typically teach anywhere from two to four courses per semester in addition to supervising graduate students. They are also expected to be active researchers and publish books, monographs, papers, and journal articles to meet their tenure requirements.

Associate Professor

An assistant professor who has been granted tenure is usually promoted to an associate professor, however, the rank doesn’t always mean the professor is tenured. An associate professor often has a national reputation as a scholar and is involved in service activities beyond their university.

This is the final destination of the tenure track. Five to seven years after receiving tenure, associate professors go through another review. If they are successful, they are promoted to full professor. Professors usually have a record of accomplishment that has established them as an international or national leader in their field.

Adjunct Professor

The number of adjunct professors has grown dramatically in the last 40 years. An adjunct professor is a part-time or non-permanent faculty member who is hired on a semester to semester basis to teach a particular course/courses. Adjuncts are often paid per course and as a result many adjuncts teach at multiple universities each semester.

An adjunct professor can also be someone whose primary appointment is in another department or at another university.

Visiting Assistant Professor (VAP)

This is a temporary appointment that can range from one semester to up to three years. These appointments are usually made to replace faculty on leave or to bring in someone who specializes in an area that the department currently lacks. VAPs often have a higher teaching load than tenured professors which can leave them with little time for their own research. These positions help entry-level academics gain more teaching experience and demonstrate their potential, but they are unlikely to turn into tenure track positions.

Lecturer/Instructor

In Canada and the United States, a lecturer/instructor is a non-tenure-track teaching position. They often have a teach more courses than tenure-track faculty and have with no research obligations. Lecturer/Instructor positions are more common in the humanities and many teach foreign languages. While lecturers hold advanced degrees, they do not always have PhDs.

It is important to note that the title of lecturer means something very different in the UK. A UK lecturer is closer to a North American assistant professor in that the position has teaching, research and service requirements. You can read more about academic titles in the UK here .

Research Assistant

This is a staff position rather than a faculty position. In contrast to a lecturer, a research assistant is primarily focused on research and has little to no teaching responsibilities. These positions are usually funded by grants or fellowships rather than by the university. While they may hold advanced degrees, research assistants are not required to have PhDs.

Research Associate/Scientist/Fellow

A research associate is distinguished by the fact that, unlike a research assistant, they have a PhD and have completed a postdoc. This is a more senior position in the lab with a more significant leadership and grant-writing role. A research associate is primarily a research position, though it may have some teaching responsibilities.

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From PhD to Professor: Advice for Landing Your First Academic Position

I am living the dream.

At least, my professional dream, that is. I have the perfect job for me. And I’m going to share with you how I got it.

First, a little about me. This August, I started my second year of being a tenure-track assistant professor at the University of Pennsylvania in the School of Social Policy & Practice, a program that is consistently ranked in the Top 15 in the country by U.S. News & World Report and one of only two Ivy League social work programs.

As new junior faculty member, I only teach one course each semester so that I have the time to launch my independent program of research. No dumping major course loads on the new assistant professors here! And as with all faculty at my school, I will only ever be required to teach two courses per semester at most, with the option of “buying out” of teaching when I have grant funding.

Additionally, as a new assistant professor, I am given priority selection for the courses I teach, having the school try its best to accommodate my expertise and interest. As soon as I started last year, my dean set up “meet and greets” with key players in my research area in Philadelphia and supported the development and submission of my application for a small, internal grant from the Provost’s Office for the first study in my research portfolio.

I could actually keeping going with why my job is so awesome, but that’s not the point of this article! Instead, I’m going to share what I learned getting to this point—my advice for other PhDs and aspiring professors out there on how to play the academic job search game and win big. Here are five strategies that really boosted my application and helped me land my dream position.

Related: Go to Grad School Guide: PhD Programs

1. Prioritize Publishing

The same publishing rule that echoes through the halls of academia for professors holds true for emerging scholars and newly minted PhDs: “Publish or perish.” A recent article published in The Conversation confirms what I found as true with my own experience: The best predictor of long-term publication success is your early publication record, or the number of papers you’ve published by the time you receive your PhD. And long-term publication success is at the top of the list for what chairs and deans hope their new assistant professors achieve, as this is what ultimately leads to tenure at places like Penn.

In other words, it’s crucial to prioritize publishing now, long before you graduate. I entered my PhD program in 2005, my first two papers came out in 2007, and I published at least two papers per year through my graduation in 2009. When I visited Penn to interview, I had another four papers on my CV , and I know that this early publication success was critical throughout the steps of my candidacy, from the invitation for the conference interview to the campus interview to the job offer.

Of course, a lot of your early publishing success as a PhD student will depend on your research advisor and mentor. I was very fortunate to have a mentor who took great joy in mentoring doctoral students and prioritized getting them involved in paper-writing early on. If you find yourself with someone who is not prioritizing your publication record, however, I recommend having a serious conversation with him or her about your needs and the importance of publishing early—or finding a new mentor. As you probably already know, you have limited time to publish while pursuing your PhD, and the publication process is notorious for taking a very long time to unfold. Prioritize it now.

2. Have a Mission Statement—and Show it Off

My professional mission is to improve the lives for youth who age out of foster care, and I intend to achieve this mission by working to reform the child welfare system so that no youth leaves foster care without a lifetime connection to a caring adult.

Having this mission—and having it spelled out—is what I believe sold my dean during my conference interview. In fact, I provided him and the other two faculty interviewers with a handout of the image below, a visual depiction of the principles and values that guide my mission and a plan for how I intend to achieve it. I think my colleagues were impressed by the fact that I had a visual plan that I could easily explain for how I imagined achieving my professional mission, and also by my creativity. Although a bulleted list could have accomplished the same thing, I believe the packaging made a difference.

Think about how you can explain your own vision and your tactical goals in a compelling way, and be specific about how you’ll make a difference as an assistant professor. For those of us at research-intensive institutions, this will generally take the form of ideas about how you will fund your research mission with grants. If you’re pursuing teaching-oriented places, you can develop a similar vision and mission statement, but make it oriented toward educating, mentoring, and inspiring students.

3. Know the Game

And a game it is. Up until this moment, my experience, probably like many of you, had been that if you work hard, do the right things, and make good choices, you are rewarded—a meritocracy. However, that’s not how the faculty game works (and no one really tells you this)!

Rather, academic hiring decisions are based on “fit,” and if you’re not the right fit, for whatever reason, you won’t receive the offer no matter how impressive your CV is. “Fit” can mean everything from your area of research to what you teach to what a given school may need with respect to faculty demographics and diversity to such mercurial things as faculty personality. Although job postings do tend to detail the research or teaching areas a given school may be looking for, these are often broad, and there can be more than one in a given announcement.

You might think the answer here is to try to be what any particular program wants you to be in order to “fit” in, but I think the real lesson is to take the game for what it is: It’s about them—not about you. Although demonstrating how you see yourself fitting in to a particular program—for example, by showing how your research would complement or add value to a department—is very important to do, in the end, you can’t make a square peg fit a round hole. All you can do is to apply, give it your best shot, and realize that in the end, it’s about them.

4. Have a Plan B

The first time I went on the job market, despite several conference interviews with an array of schools and a successful campus visit and job talk at Michigan, I received no offers. My colleague and fellow new assistant professor Antonio Garcia identified with my experience: “I, too, completed several successful interviews, but to no avail. I did not receive any offers for a tenure track position during my last year of dissertation work.”

So what happened? We both fell back on Plan B: post-doc positions. Although I didn’t want to do a post-doc, it bought me some time and allowed me to further build my CV and professional identity. I went on the market a second time following the first year of my two-year post-doc and was then in an even stronger position than the first time. Professor Garcia also landed his tenure track position following the first year of his post-doc. “Although my first choice was not to delay the tenure clock, it has since worked to my advantage,” he explains. “I benefitted from having time to a meticulously develop my research agenda, publish manuscripts, and develop and maintain long-lasting inter-disciplinary relationships. I strongly believe the two-year post-doc will ultimately provide me with better odds of receiving tenure.”

Fact is, you may not land the assistant professor job of your dreams—or even an assistant professor job—the first time you try. So, it’s incredibly important to have a Plan B, whether that’s a post-doc or a job with a private research firm that still allows you to build your publication record and gain other worthwhile experience that can translate to academia, like presenting your work at professional conferences.

Related: 3 Steps to Turn Any Setback Into a Success

5. Swallow Your Pride

I actually applied to Penn twice—the first time I went on the market I was unsuccessful, but after the first year of my post-doc, I saw another job posting and as best I could tell, I was a good “fit.” I had a bit of a pride issue about knocking on Penn’s door again, but I also realized that if I didn’t, only one thing was certain: I would never work there. So I swallowed my pride, I knocked again, and I landed the job of my dreams. In fact, as I was leaving the hotel suite where I had my conference interview, one of the faculty interviewers said, “I’m so glad you decided to apply again.”

Finding your first professorship isn’t an easy road, but it’s important to persevere and to stay focused on your long-term goals. Penn psychology professor and recently named MacArthur “genius” Fellow Angela Duckworth defines this philosophy as “grit.”

I liken it to surfing. In fact, during my job talk at Penn, while sharing my vision with the hiring committee, I also shared this: “When considering a research-oriented career, a particular quote comes to mind, ‘You can’t stop the waves, but you can learn to surf.’ If we think of a research career as the surface of a lake or ocean, there are always waves, sometimes big, sometimes small. Nothing we do can stop the waves, but we can learn to surf.”

There are no guarantees that, even if you do all these things, you will land your dream faculty job. But I hope these tips will help you feel perhaps a little more in control while the waves splash over. Try to have fun with this process, at least as much as you can, and may you, too, soon find yourself living the dream.

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Master’s vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Master's vs PhD | A Complete Guide to the Differences

Published on November 27, 2020 by Lauren Thomas . Revised on May 10, 2024.

The two most common types of graduate degrees are master’s and doctoral degrees:

A master’s is a 1–2 year degree that can prepare you for a multitude of careers.
A PhD, or doctoral degree, takes 3–7 years to complete (depending on the country) and prepares you for a career in academic research.

A master’s is also the necessary first step to a PhD. In the US, the master’s is built into PhD programs, while in most other countries, a separate master’s degree is required before applying for PhDs.

Master’s are far more common than PhDs. In the US, 24 million people have master’s or professional degrees, whereas only 4.5 million have doctorates.

Master’s vs phd at a glance, which is right for you, length of time required, career prospects, costs and salaries, application process, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about master's and phd degrees.

The table below shows the key differences between the two.

	Master’s	PhD
Career prospects	Usually intended for a career outside of academia.	Prepares for a research career, ideally as a university professor.
Length of time	1–2 years	5–7 in the US (master’s degree included); 3–5 outside the US (after a separate master’s degree)
Structure	Mostly coursework, often with a semester-long or capstone project at the end.	2 years of coursework (in the US), followed by 3–5 years of preparing a dissertation, which should make a significant original contribution to current knowledge.
Cost	Varies by country, university and program; usually higher upfront cost with limited financial aid available.	Tuition fees are usually waived and a living stipend provided in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant.
Graduate salaries	Wage premium (compared to earnings with a high school education) is 23% on average.	Wage premium is 26% on average.

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A PhD is right for you if:

Your goal is to become a professor at a university or some other type of professional researcher.
You love research and are passionate about discovering the answer to a particular question.
You are willing to spend years pursuing your research even if you have to put up with a lot of dead ends and roadblocks.

A master’s degree is the better choice if any of the following apply:

You want to continue studies in your field, but you’re not committed to a career as a professional researcher.
You want to develop professional skills for a specific career.
You are willing to pay a higher upfront cost if it means finishing with your degree (and thus being able to work) much faster.
You want the option to study part-time while working.

The length of time required to complete a PhD or master’s degree varies. Unsurprisingly, PhDs take much longer, usually between 3–7 years. Master’s degrees are usually only 1–2 years.

Length of a master’s

Master’s degrees are usually 2 years, although 1-year master’s degrees also exist, mainly in the UK.

Most of the degree consists of classes and coursework, although many master’s programs include an intensive, semester-long master’s thesis or capstone project in which students bring together all they’ve learned to produce an original piece of work.

Length of a PhD

In the US, a PhD usually takes between 5 and 7 years to complete. The first 2 years are spent on coursework. Students, even those who choose to leave without finishing the program, usually receive a master’s degree at this point.

The next 3–5 years are spent preparing a dissertation —a lengthy piece of writing based on independent research, which aims to make a significant original contribution to one’s field.

Master’s degrees tend to prepare you for a career outside of academia, while PhDs are designed to lead to a career in research.

Careers for master’s graduates

There are two types of master’s degrees: terminal and research-intensive. The career prospects are different for each.

Terminal master’s degrees are intended to prepare students for careers outside of academia. Some degrees, known as professional degrees, specifically prepare students for particular professions; these include the Master of Public Policy (MPP), Master of Business Administration (MBA), Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Master of Fine Arts (MFA), and Master of Public Health (MPH) degrees.

Other master’s degrees, usually Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Sciences (MS or MSc) degrees, do not necessarily lead to a specific career, but are intended to be a final degree. Examples include an MS in Communications or MS in Data Analytics.

In research-intensive master’s programs, students take coursework intended to prepare them for writing an original piece of research known as the master’s thesis . Such programs are usually intended to prepare for further study in a doctoral program.

Careers for PhD graduates

As research degrees, PhDs are usually intended to lead to an academic career. A PhD can be thought of like an apprenticeship, where students learn from professional researchers (academics) how to produce their own research.

Most students aspire to become a university professor upon the completion of their degree. However, careers in academia are highly competitive, and the skills learned in a doctoral program often lend themselves well to other types of careers.

Some graduates who find they prefer teaching to producing research go on to be teachers at liberal arts colleges or even secondary schools. Others work in research-intensive careers in the government, private sector, or at think tanks.

Below are a few examples of specific fields and non-academic careers that are common destinations of graduates of those fields.

Computer Science
Lab Sciences

Many government jobs, including economists at a country’s central bank, are research-intensive and require a PhD. Think tanks also hire economists to carry out independent research.

In the private sector, economic consulting and technology firms frequently hire PhDs to solve real-world problems that require complex mathematical modeling.

Graduate students from the humanities are sometimes hired by museums, who can make use of their research and writing skills to curate exhibits and run public outreach.

Humanities PhDs are often well-suited to research and grant-writing roles at nonprofits. Since so much of research is funded by grants, PhD students often gain a lot of experience applying for them, which is a useful skill in the nonprofit sector.

There are a wide range of non-academic research jobs for lab scientists with doctorates in subjects like chemistry, biology, ecology and physics.

Many PhD graduates are hired by pharmaceutical companies that need to perform research to create and test their products. Government agencies, such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), also hire lab scientists to work on research projects.

Job prospects after graduation vary widely based on the field. In fields like management, computer science, statistics, and economics, there’s little underemployment—even graduates from less well-known programs can easily find jobs that pay well and use the skills they’ve gained from the PhD.

However, in other fields, particularly in the humanities, many PhD graduates have difficulty in the job market. Unfortunately, there are far more PhD graduates than assistant professor roles, so many instead take on part-time and low-paid roles as adjunct instructors. Even non-academic careers can sometimes be difficult for PhDs to move into, as they may be seen as “overqualified” or as lacking in relevant professional experience.

Because career options post-PhD vary so much, you should take the time to figure out what the career prospects are in your field. Doctoral programs often have detailed “placement” records online in which they list the career outcomes of their graduates immediately upon leaving the program. If you can’t find these records, contact the program and ask for them—placement information should play an important role in your choice of PhD program.

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Although PhDs take far longer to complete, students often receive a living stipend in exchange for being a teaching or research assistant. Master’s degrees are shorter but less likely to be funded.

Both master’s degrees and PhDs lead to increased salaries upon graduation. While PhDs usually earn a bit more than those with a master’s degree, in some fields, the wages are identical, meaning that no financial benefit is gained from going on to a PhD.

Cost of a master’s

The upfront cost of a master’s degree is usually higher than a doctoral degree due to the lower amount of financial aid available. However, increased salaries also arrive faster than with a doctoral degree, because people graduate much earlier from a master’s program.

Some master’s students do receive stipends for their degrees, usually as compensation for being a teaching or research assistant. In addition, many people complete master’s degrees part time while working full-time, which allows them to fund their living costs as well as tuition.

The cost varies significantly by school and program. Public schools are usually cheaper than private ones. Some master’s degrees, such as MBAs, are notoriously expensive, but also result in much higher wages afterwards that make up for the high cost.

The master’s wage premium , or the extra amount that someone with a master’s degree makes than someone with just a high school diploma, is 23% on average. Many universities provide detailed statistics on the career and salary outcomes of their students. If they do not have this online, you should feel free to contact an administrator of the program and ask.

Cost of a PhD

PhDs, particularly outside the humanities, are usually (though not always) funded, meaning that tuition fees are fully waived and students receive a small living stipend. During the last 3–5 years of a PhD, after finishing their coursework (and sometimes before), students are usually expected to work as graduate instructors or research assistants in exchange for the stipend.

Sometimes students can apply for a fellowship (such as the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Program in the United States) that relieves them of any obligations to be a teaching or research assistant. Doctoral programs in the US tend to be better funded than in the rest of the world.

Sometimes, PhD degrees can be completed part-time, but this is rare. Students are usually expected to devote at least 40 hours a week to their research and work as teaching or research assistants.

The main cost of doctoral programs comes in the form of opportunity cost—all the years that students could be working a regular, full-time job, which usually pays much better than a graduate school stipend.

The average wage premium for PhDs is 26%, which is not much higher than the master’s degree premium.

In the US, the application process is similar for master’s and PhD programs. Both will generally ask for:

At least one application essay, often called a personal statement or statement of purpose .
Letters of recommendation .
A resume or CV .
Transcripts.
Writing samples.

Applications for both types of programs also often require a standardized test. PhDs usually require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE), which tries to measure verbal reasoning, quantitative, critical thinking , and analytical writing skills. Many master’s programs require this test as well.

Applying for a master’s

Master’s degrees programs will often ask you to respond to specific essay prompts that may ask you to reflect upon not just your academic background, but also your personal character and future career ambitions.

Northwestern University’s Kellogg Business School requires Master’s of Business Administration (MBA) applicants write two essays, one about a recent time they demonstrated leadership and the second about their personal values.

Who you should ask for your letters of recommendation varies by program. If you are applying to a research-intensive master’s program, then you should choose former professors or research supervisors. For other programs, particularly business school, current work supervisors may be a better choice.

Some professional master’s programs require a specific test. For example, to apply to law school, you must take the Law School Admissions Test, or LSAT. For business school, you must take either the GRE or the Graduate Management Admissions Test (GMAT).

Applying for a PhD

When applying for a PhD, your resume should focus more on your research background—you should especially emphasize any publications you’ve authored or presentations that you’ve given.

Similarly, your statement of purpose should discuss research that you’ve participated in, whether as an assistant or the lead author. You should detail what exactly you did in projects you’ve contributed to, whether that’s conducting a literature review, coding regressions, or writing an entire article.

Your letters of recommendations should be from former professors or supervisors who can speak to your abilities and potential as a researcher. A good rule of thumb is to avoid asking for recommendations from anyone who does not themselves have a PhD.

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A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

This depends on the country. In the United States, you can generally go directly to a PhD with only a bachelor’s degree, as a master’s program is included as part of the doctoral program.

Elsewhere, you generally need to graduate from a research-intensive master’s degree before continuing to the PhD.

This varies by country. In the United States, PhDs usually take between 5–7 years: 2 years of coursework followed by 3–5 years of independent research work to produce a dissertation.

In the rest of the world, students normally have a master’s degree before beginning the PhD, so they proceed directly to the research stage and complete a PhD in 3–5 years.

A master’s degree usually has a higher upfront cost, but it also allows you to start earning a higher salary more quickly. The exact cost depends on the country and the school: private universities usually cost more than public ones, and European degrees usually cost less than North American ones. There are limited possibilities for financial aid.

PhDs often waive tuition fees and offer a living stipend in exchange for a teaching or research assistantship. However, they take many years to complete, during which time you earn very little.

In the US, the graduate school application process is similar whether you’re applying for a master’s or a PhD . Both require letters of recommendation , a statement of purpose or personal statement , a resume or CV , and transcripts. Programs in the US and Canada usually also require a certain type of standardized test—often the GRE.

Outside the US, PhD programs usually also require applicants to write a research proposal , because students are expected to begin dissertation research in the first year of their PhD.

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How Many Ph.D.'s Actually Get to Become College Professors?

Not every Ph.D. student aspires to a career as a tenured college professor. But in plenty of fields, particularly the humanities, spending your life buried up to your elbow patches in books and papers is the gold standard of success. So while breaking down the National Science Foundation's data for my last two pieces on the job market for doctorate holders, I took a bit of time to look at just what fraction of new graduates were landing jobs in the academy.

The good news? The numbers have only dropped a few percentage points in 20 years. The bad news? They were pretty low to begin with.

Keep in mind, 34 percent of all soon-to-graduate Ph.D.'s didn't report having a job or postdoctoral appointment in the NSF's survey. At least some of those students probably landed at a college or university eventually. But long term, if you graduated in the class of 2011, your chances of living the academic dream appear to have been pretty slim.

The available data on long-term career outcomes for Ph.D.'s aren't great. But back in 1999, a study titled Ph.D.'s -- Ten Years Later surveyed thousands of one-time doctoral students about how they'd fared in the workforce a decade or more after graduation day. These were men and women who'd received their diplomas sometime between 1982 and 1985, when the market was a bit less red in tooth and claw. And even in those days, their experience showed that without a fast early start, your chances of successfully scaling the ivory tower and reaching tenure were pretty slim. At the time 53 percent of all Ph.D.'s said they had intended to become professors. As this table (apologies for the awkward angle) showed, only about half of that group had obtained tenure within ten-to-fourteen years, while 33 percent weren't in academia at all.

With tenure relatively rarer than it was 30 years ago, it's fair to assume that an even larger portion of tomorrow's full professors will come from the Ph.D.'s who land academic jobs off the bat. And as we've seen, that group is getting pretty small.

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How To Become A Professor: A Step-By-Step Guide

Updated: Oct 31, 2023, 10:17am

How To Become A Professor: A Step-By-Step Guide

Teaching is professors’ primary role, but their impacts extend beyond the classroom. These professionals shape students’ critical thinking, time management and leadership abilities while preparing them for academic and professional success.

Through mentorship and student coaching, postsecondary educators can make significant impacts, even from a small corner of the world.

Read on to discover how to become a college professor, plus the average salary and job outlook for this career path.

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What Is a Professor?

Professors teach students in postsecondary institutions like community colleges and universities. Most higher education professionals are professors, who usually specialize in a specific discipline after years of independent research.

Professors typically teach students majoring in fields related to their area of expertise. For example, a sociology professor may teach students majoring in sociology, political science and other social sciences.

Professors’ primary goal is to prepare learners for rewarding careers in their field of study. They achieve this goal by assessing and mentoring students and offering assistance throughout the semester.

Most professors work full time, but some may work part time or in adjunct roles. Regardless of the courses they teach, professors across colleges typically have the same responsibilities, which include:

Collaborating with program coordinators and other faculty members to develop a standard curriculum
Writing lesson plans
Recommending relevant text and literature to students
Giving lectures
Evaluate learners’ progress by grading assignments and tests
Conducting research and publishing academic papers
Supervising teaching assistants
Serving on departmental or college-wide committees

Most full-time college professors work a regular 9-to-5, Monday-through-Friday workweek. However, some may mentor students or attend networking events at odd hours. On the other hand, adjunct professors may hold multiple positions at once, working varying hours and teaching summer classes.

How To Become a College Professor

Earn a bachelor’s degree.

The first step to becoming a college professor is completing an undergraduate degree in a discipline that interests you. As most postsecondary teaching positions require a terminal doctoral degree, maintaining at least a 3.0 undergraduate GPA prepares you for higher education.

Enroll in a Master’s Program

A master’s program allows you to specialize in a subfield of your primary discipline. Master’s degrees take two to three years to complete and may be available in online or hybrid formats.

A master’s degree prepares you to work in community colleges and vocational schools, but most four-year institutions require professors to have doctoral degrees.

Gain Teaching Experience

While in graduate school, you can gain experience through teaching assistant positions. Teaching assistantships are typically reserved for graduate students who demonstrate academic excellence and leadership skills.

As a teaching assistant, you’ll shadow a professor as they teach undergraduates. You may lead classroom discussions, create assignments and grade tests. Assistantship also offers perks such as subsidized tuition, extra credits and regular stipends.

Consider Certification or Licensure

If your field requires professionals to hold certain licenses or credentials, consider earning these before applying for your first postsecondary teaching role. Prospective accounting professors, for example, may need a CPA credential, while a nurse educator should have RN licensure and advanced nursing certifications.

Earn a Doctoral Degree

A doctorate is the most advanced academic qualification postsecondary instructors can earn. This is a standard requirement for professors at most U.S. universities.

Though exact doctoral offerings vary by field, in most cases, there are two main doctorate tracks: the applied doctorate and the research core Ph.D. While the former emphasizes the practical application of knowledge, academic professionals like professors and research fellows often favor the more research-based Ph.D. option.

A typical doctoral program builds on the specialized knowledge acquired during your master’s and takes four to six years to complete. After extensive research, you must write and defend your dissertation to graduate.

Explore the Job Market

With the right experience and qualifications, you can seek suitable professorship positions. Having a professional network helps connect you to new job openings in your field.

Professor Salary and Job Outlook

According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), postsecondary educators earned a median annual salary of $80,840 as of May 2022. However, salaries vary by discipline and geographical location. For example, law professors earn a median salary of $108,860, while social work educators earn $66,510 annually.

The BLS projects employment opportunities for postsecondary educators to increase by 8%, a faster-than-average rate, from 2022 to 2032 as learners continue to seek advanced education.

College Professor Specializations

Your postgraduate specialization largely determines which subjects you’ll teach as a professor. You should specialize in whatever subject you want to teach at the postsecondary level.

For example, those aspiring to train future educators can specialize in STEM education, curriculum and instruction, or history education, depending on their interests. College professors can also specialize in teaching modalities like online teaching .

Professional Organizations for Professors

Like most other professionals, college professors need solid networks to thrive. Belonging to a professional organization can boost your profile and facilitate career development. Below are some organizations that can support your career growth as a postsecondary educator.

American Association of University Professors (AAUP)

The AAUP was established in 1915 to foster academic freedom and economic security for university educators nationwide. Since then, its membership has grown to include 39 state organizations and 500 campus chapters. With an AAUP membership, you can access various teaching resources and insurance programs.

Association for Institutional Research (AIR)

The Association for Institutional Research empowers postsecondary instructors and researchers to make data-informed decisions that contribute to higher education advancement. It hosts an annual “Air Forum” conference, where higher education professionals network and learn from industry experts.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) About Becoming a Professor

What qualifies you to be a professor.

The primary academic qualification required to be a professor is a postgraduate degree. Other requirements may include teaching and research experience.

Is it hard to become a professor?

Becoming a professor is a challenging journey involving years of learning and research. Some might consider the process daunting, but professorship is attainable with dedication and discipline.

Can I be a professor with a master’s?

A master’s degree qualifies you to teach at some two-year colleges. However, it doesn’t qualify you for tenure.

Do professors make a lot of money?

Professors can earn up to $120,000 annually, depending on their field and location. But, the median annual salary for postsecondary teachers is $80,840, according to the BLS.

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In five years of writing for various audiences, Uche has learned to simplify career-focused content for ambitious learners regardless of their qualifications. Her work is published in notable platforms such as Hackernoon and Hashnode.

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From PhD to Professor: Advice for Landing Your First Academic Position

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I am living the dream.

At least, my professional dream, that is. I have the perfect job for me. And I’m going to share with you how I got it.

Related: Go to Grad School Guide: PhD Programs

1. Prioritize Publishing

2. Have a Mission Statement—and Show it Off

3. Know the Game

4. Have a Plan B

Related: 3 Steps to Turn Any Setback Into a Success

5. Swallow Your Pride

Link to original article: https://www.themuse.com/advice/from-phd-to-professor-advice-for-landing-your-first-academic-position

About the Author:

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Johanna Greeson of The University of Pennsylvania School of Social Policy & Practice

Johanna K.P. Greeson, PhD, MSS, MLSP, is an Assistant Professor at Penn. She is passionate about reforming the child welfare system, using research to build better futures for youth who age out of foster care, and realizing the power of connections to caring adults for all vulnerable youth. Her research agenda is resiliency-focused and based in the strengths and virtues that enable foster youth to not only survive, but thrive.

We respectfully acknowledge the University of Arizona is on the land and territories of Indigenous peoples. Today, Arizona is home to 22 federally recognized tribes, with Tucson being home to the O'odham and the Yaqui. Committed to diversity and inclusion, the University strives to build sustainable relationships with sovereign Native Nations and Indigenous communities through education offerings, partnerships, and community service.

Doctor of Philosophy in Education

Ph.D. Commencement robing Martin West and Christopher Cleveland

Additional Information

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The Harvard Ph.D. in Education trains cutting-edge researchers who work across disciplines to generate knowledge and translate discoveries into transformative policy and practice.

Offered jointly by the Harvard Graduate School of Education and the Harvard Kenneth C. Griffin Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, the Ph.D. in Education provides you with full access to the extraordinary resources of Harvard University and prepares you to assume meaningful roles as university faculty, researchers, senior-level education leaders, and policymakers.

As a Ph.D. candidate, you will collaborate with scholars across all Harvard graduate schools on original interdisciplinary research. In the process, you will help forge new fields of inquiry that will impact the way we teach and learn. The program’s required coursework will develop your knowledge of education and your expertise in a range of quantitative and qualitative methods needed to conduct high-quality research. Guided by the goal of making a transformative impact on education research, policy, and practice, you will focus on independent research in various domains, including human development, learning and teaching, policy analysis and evaluation, institutions and society, and instructional practice.

Curriculum Information

The Ph.D. in Education requires five years of full-time study to complete. You will choose your individual coursework and design your original research in close consultation with your HGSE faculty adviser and dissertation committee. The requirements listed below include the three Ph.D. concentrations: Culture, Institutions, and Society; Education Policy and Program Evaluation; and Human Development, Learning and Teaching .

We invite you to review an example course list, which is provided in two formats — one as the full list by course number and one by broad course category . These lists are subject to modification.

Ph.D. Concentrations and Examples

Summary of Ph.D. Program

Doctoral Colloquia In year one and two you are required to attend. The colloquia convenes weekly and features presentations of work-in-progress and completed work by Harvard faculty, faculty and researchers from outside Harvard, and Harvard doctoral students. Ph.D. students present once in the colloquia over the course of their career.

Research Apprenticeship The Research Apprenticeship is designed to provide ongoing training and mentoring to develop your research skills throughout the entire program.

Teaching Fellowships The Teaching Fellowship is an opportunity to enhance students' teaching skills, promote learning consolidation, and provide opportunities to collaborate with faculty on pedagogical development.

Comprehensive Exams The Written Exam (year 2, spring) tests you on both general and concentration-specific knowledge. The Oral Exam (year 3, fall/winter) tests your command of your chosen field of study and your ability to design, develop, and implement an original research project.

Dissertation Based on your original research, the dissertation process consists of three parts: the Dissertation Proposal, the writing, and an oral defense before the members of your dissertation committee.

Culture, Institutions, and Society (CIS) Concentration

In CIS, you will examine the broader cultural, institutional, organizational, and social contexts relevant to education across the lifespan. What is the value and purpose of education? How do cultural, institutional, and social factors shape educational processes and outcomes? How effective are social movements and community action in education reform? How do we measure stratification and institutional inequality? In CIS, your work will be informed by theories and methods from sociology, history, political science, organizational behavior and management, philosophy, and anthropology. You can examine contexts as diverse as classrooms, families, neighborhoods, schools, colleges and universities, religious institutions, nonprofits, government agencies, and more.

Education Policy and Program Evaluation (EPPE) Concentration

In EPPE, you will research the design, implementation, and evaluation of education policy affecting early childhood, K–12, and postsecondary education in the U.S. and internationally. You will evaluate and assess individual programs and policies related to critical issues like access to education, teacher effectiveness, school finance, testing and accountability systems, school choice, financial aid, college enrollment and persistence, and more. Your work will be informed by theories and methods from economics, political science, public policy, and sociology, history, philosophy, and statistics. This concentration shares some themes with CIS, but your work with EPPE will focus on public policy and large-scale reforms.

Human Development, Learning and Teaching (HDLT) Concentration

In HDLT, you will work to advance the role of scientific research in education policy, reform, and practice. New discoveries in the science of learning and development — the integration of biological, cognitive, and social processes; the relationships between technology and learning; or the factors that influence individual variations in learning — are transforming the practice of teaching and learning in both formal and informal settings. Whether studying behavioral, cognitive, or social-emotional development in children or the design of learning technologies to maximize understanding, you will gain a strong background in human development, the science of learning, and sociocultural factors that explain variation in learning and developmental pathways. Your research will be informed by theories and methods from psychology, cognitive science, sociology and linguistics, philosophy, the biological sciences and mathematics, and organizational behavior.

Program Faculty

The most remarkable thing about the Ph.D. in Education is open access to faculty from all Harvard graduate and professional schools, including the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the Harvard Kennedy School, the Harvard Law School, Harvard Medical School, and the Harvard School of Public Health. Learn about the full Ph.D. Faculty.

Jarvis R. Givens

Jarvis Givens studies the history of American education, African American history, and the relationship between race and power in schools.

Paul L. Harris

Paul Harris is interested in the early development of cognition, emotion, and imagination in children.

Meira Levinson

Meira Levinson is a normative political philosopher who works at the intersection of civic education, youth empowerment, racial justice, and educational ethics.

Luke W. Miratrix

Luke Miratrix is a statistician who explores how to best use modern statistical methods in applied social science contexts.

Eric Taylor

Eric Taylor studies the economics of education, with a particular interest in employer-employee interactions between schools and teachers hiring and firing decisions, job design, training, and performance evaluation.

Paola Uccelli

Paola Ucelli studies socio-cultural and individual differences in the language development of multilingual and monolingual students.

View Ph.D. Faculty

Dissertations.

The following is a complete listing of successful Ph.D. in Education dissertations to-date. Dissertations from November 2014 onward are publicly available in the Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) , the online repository for Harvard scholarship.

2022 Graduate Dissertations (265 KB pdf)
2021 Graduate Dissertations (177 KB pdf)
2020 Graduate Dissertations (121 KB pdf)
2019 Graduate Dissertations (68.3 KB pdf)

Student Directory

An opt-in listing of current Ph.D. students with information about their interests, research, personal web pages, and contact information:

Doctor of Philosophy in Education Student Directory

Introduce Yourself

Tell us about yourself so that we can tailor our communication to best fit your interests and provide you with relevant information about our programs, events, and other opportunities to connect with us.

Program Highlights

Explore examples of the Doctor of Philosophy in Education experience and the impact its community is making on the field:

The Human Element of Data and AI

Gahyun Callie Sung's journey to HGSE and the LIT Lab is reflected in her research into data and using AI to improve student outcomes

Improving the Teacher Workforce

With her research work, doctoral marshal Mary Laski, Ph.D.'24, is trying to make teaching in K–12 schools more sustainable and attractive

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Is it common to refer to someone as "Prof. Dr. [LastName]"?

I have generally only heard people refer to professors as either "Dr. Smith" or "Prof. Smith". However, I received an email that referred to the keynote speakers at a conference as "Prof. Dr. Smith". Is this common? (It is for a conference in taking place in the EU and I am from the US if that helps).

professorship

22 It was (at least at one time) common in Germany. Herr Professor Doktor Klein. No, it is not common in the US and never was ... except maybe among German Jewish immigrants arriving here during the Nazi times. – GEdgar Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 14:37
19 Indeed very common in Germany. If somebody earned multiple doctorates, you would list each one, so you may sometimes actually find Prof. Dr. Dr. or even Prof. Dr. Dr. Dr. Also important: that only applies to actual Dr. - in Germany, it is illegal for somebody with a Ph. D. to substitute the title Dr. – Kevin Keane Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 19:08
8 @MikeHill Ordinarily, a Ph.D. is indeed equivalent to a Dr., but not in front of the law. In Germany, it is a crime to use the title Dr. when you don't have it - and there was a case a few years ago when somebody with a Ph.D. was convicted for using the Dr. The regulations are explicit about it. rp.baden-wuerttemberg.de/Themen/Bildung/Ausbildung/Documents/… page 6 : you cannot use a domestic title even if your foreign one is materially equivalent. You aren't even allowed to use the German translation; you must use the original foreign-language title. – Kevin Keane Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 20:36
8 @KevinKeane it is a crime to use the title Dr. when you don't have it. Well, let's say it's a misdemeanor, or an offence. (It's a Vergehen , not a Verbrechen .) – sgf Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 8:15
5 @KevinKeane In your document, page 11: Danach können Inhaber des Doktorgrades „Doctor of Philosophy“, Abkürzung: „Ph.D.“ von Universitäten der sog. Carnegie-Liste anstelle der in den USA üblichen Abkürzung die Abkürzung: „Dr.“ ohne fachlichen Zusatz und ohne Herkunftsbe-zeichnung führen. – Shuangistan Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 14:18

6 Answers 6

German academia traditionally expects that one will use all relevant titles, so Prof. Dr. is pretty common there. Likewise other places with an academic system related to Germany in some way. As you note, in the US this would be very uncommon and the two titles you mention often used interchangeably there, even when it isn't clear that both apply.

And, if I remember correctly, it is always Prof. Dr. and never Dr. Prof. since the professorship was earned after the doctorate and is a "higher level" honorific. But "Herr Prof. Dr." doesn't fit that rule, I guess.

6 This is also the usual form in the Netherlands. I guess this is covered by the 'academic system related to Germany' in so far as it's next door. – mfitzp Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 17:08
21 FWIW, I just randomly typed some honorifics into google and found an obituary for Prof. em. Dr. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Dr. h.c. Dieter Schneider. Which tells us that Prof. Schneider was a former professor who earned one doctorate the usual way and was awarded an additional four honorary doctorates. (However, note that an obituary is of course an extremely formal situation. You would not have addressed him that way, you would have addressed him as Prof. Dr. or maybe Prof. em. Dr. if you wanted to emphasize that he is retired.) – Jörg W Mittag Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 19:56
19 And just to add to the last comment, the commonly used formal way to list multiple honorary degrees in Germany would be Prof. Dr. Dr. h. c. mult. Schneider. – user2705196 Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 20:07
6 @JörgWMittag I take it that h. c. stands for honoris causa ? – Robert Furber Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 21:04
11 I'd like to add that this is common in formal situations. I'd expect to hear "Prof. Dr. X" in the introduction of the speaker before the award lecture at a conference, but an introduction in the coffee break by a 3rd person to be maybe "Prof. X" if not Herr/Frau X. If Prof. Dr. X introduces themselves in the coffee break, that would often be a handshake with e.g. "X, angenehm" (= "X, nice [to meet you]"). – cbeleites unhappy with SX Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 10:19

Background . In Italy, Dottore (short version dr. or dott.) refers to those who hold either a bachelor's degree, or a graduate degree, or a Ph.D., or those who are physicians.

Reply . Those who both serve as physicians and teach at medical school are commonly regarded as Prof. Dott. or Prof. Dr.

Yes, it is common to use both, and the reason is that these are two completely different categories. Doctorates are academic degrees that come in different flavors including "Dr. h.c." and "Dr. habil.". They indicate the academic level, just like Bachelor or Master degrees. For academic degrees, you typically use all degrees on the highest level, so you don't mention a Master degree when someone also holds a PhD, but you mention all doctorates. "Professor" on the other hand is (in almost all cases) an official title which you mention just like you would always refer to a judge as "Judge XXX", whether or not he/she's holds a PhD. That also explains the order: Titles come first, and you lose them when you lose the job. Degrees become part of the name (so to say, until recently, it was possible to have them on your ID card.)

15 Common in Germany, unheard of elsewhere – user104070 Commented Feb 20, 2019 at 21:52
1 @GeorgeM Also common in Belgium. Most of my professors signed everything, even their class handouts, with Prof. Dr. Ir. because they were all professors after doing a doctorate after receiving their engineering titles. – DonFusili Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 8:15
3 @DonFusili Where have you seen this in Belgium? In my experience it is done in Dutch-speaking Belgian universities but never in French-speaking ones. – Arnaud D. Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 11:03
2 @GeorgeM it's common wherever Professor is not essentially a synonym for Teacher. – OrangeDog Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 13:27
6 @OrangeDog Nope. "Prof Dr" is never used in the UK, where, in most universities, "professor" is only used for the most senior academics. – David Richerby Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 15:14

All the other answers focus on the formal importance of titles and etiquette in German speaking countries. While refering to a person by his/her titles is normal, has not to be taken too far.

Still the level of formality isn't always the same. While the name and titles on a board can be meter long, normally an entitled person is approached by students as Herr/Frau followed by the most prestigious title and that suffices.

Professor will work well in your case. And this depends on situations, too. You might be for a beer after session and call American professors by name, it could be seen bizarre to switch to professor even, not to mention Mr or Sir professor :)

The language will often,if not always, be English, and somehow the level of formality goes along with.

I have worked in Austria and visited Germany. I never heard of herr Prof. Dr. or viceversa if not in pompous presentation as in special academic events. For sure students do not approach someone using two titles.

So there is nothing to worry about.

Edit: driven by other answers and comments I have focused on german speaking academia. I see the Q is more general. In a way the answer is still valid as Professor serves well the purpose of directly speaking to whom has that title (for foreigners, europeans or not, in Europe). Again printed material, official listing, ecc. might well detail all the titles. So Prof. Dr. might be encountered, but it will be always in the same fashion as the OP has already experienced, namely a third person or a third inanimate thing as a board introducing you an entitled person.

1 +1. OP mentions an email introducing the keynote speaker - in my experience that's one of the special events where one would mention ALL titles. – Sabine Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 11:26
@Sabine. Indeed I've formulated my answer as if the OP is going to meet a German professor in person. If it is matter of addressing in letter and email, I would write dear Professor, still. While for organizational things would be safe to list all. Though I doubt that someone sitting in Italy or America would be responsible for, say, printing the badges for a conference in Berlin. Otherwise if a I print a flyer yes, all titles needed especially if the happening is in Germany. Hope our comments complement the answer. – Alchimista Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 11:48

In academic settings, a professor, also known as a full professor, is the highest rank a Professor can acquire. A Ph.D. is generally a minimum prerequisite for obtaining the title of Professor within a university. So, writing Prof.Dr. is just redundancy. Just like saying (Person.Mr. or Person.Ms.)

German Academy may that be the exception that uses it.

Other ranks are assistant professor or associate professor, but below the rank of professor.

Unfortunately, it sometimes happens that people who were assistant professors for three months 20 years ago write as professors, hiding behind the ignorance of some readers. They are just playing a fallacy.

References:

According to the Cambridge dictionary , a Professor is defined as " a teacher of the highest rank in a department of a British university, or a teacher of high rank in an American university or college. "

Similarly, Merriam-Webster describes a Professor as " a faculty member of the highest academic rank at an institution of higher education " or " a teacher at a university, college, or sometimes secondary school " who possesses specialized knowledge or skill in a particular field.

I have personally never seen Prof. Dr. X. At least from my experience Prof. is reserved for those who are teaching a course, but do not have a Ph.D. degree (graduate students teaching intro level undergrad courses) or faculty members who only have a MA/MS degree. Dr. in contrast is used for people who have a Ph.D. degree.

Matter here is about persons who are professor. While in many countries a teacher can be called professor, the actual case is quite different. While a person might be called professor in german high school I have no idea. Surely at german universities a teacher is not called professor. Is not exactly but quite opposite to what your answer suggests. – Alchimista Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 10:24
3 @Alchimista The only people called Professor in Germany are actual professors. Period. A teacher, highschool or otherwise, is never called Professor. – user9482 Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 10:32
Even better for the sense of my comment. @Roland – Alchimista Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 10:35
1 In the US, grad students spend half their time trying to get first-year undergraduates to stop calling them "professor." The title professor is not generally used for grad students or anybody who is not, in fact, a professor. – Zach Lipton Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 10:57
2 Where are you from? In the U.S., nobody from my school calls me "Doctor". It's always "Professor" (unless it's just my first name). – Peter Shor Commented Feb 21, 2019 at 12:07

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How to Become a Professor: Career Guide, Courses, After 12th, Qualifications, Colleges, Jobs, Scope, Salary

Ahana Bhaduri

Content Writer

A Professor is a scholar with a doctorate or equivalent degree who teaches across various colleges and universities. Professors are specialized in a wide variety of academic subjects and fields and usually conduct research on their area of expertise. To become a Professor, candidates must complete their PhD in a relevant subject from a recognised university.

To become a Professor After 12 th candidates can pursue PhD Courses across various streams depending on the subject that they want to specialise in. There are various types of Professors based on their designation and specializations, such as Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, and Head of Department (HOD). PhD Admissions are done on the basis of entrance exams such as UGC NET, and CSIR. After clearing the entrance exams candidates have to sit for GD / PI rounds to be finally get selected for any PhD course. The average course fee to become a Professor ranges from INR 20,000 – 1,50,000. India is home to several top PhD Colleges in India where candidates can choose to pursue PhD Courses. Check: Professor Qualifications

The average salary of a Professor in India is INR 5.11 LPA and may go beyond INR 35 LPA depending upon the experience and type of institution. The monthly salary of a Professor in India ranges between INR 40,000 - INR 90,000. The salary of a Professor also depends on their designation as well. An Associate Professor earns around INR 1,50,000 – 3,00,000 per month where as an Assistant Professor earns around INR 50,000 – 75,000 per month. Read More: Salary of a Professor

How to Become a Professor: Quick Facts
What Does a Professor do

Types of Professors

3.1 Researcher

3.2 Assistant Professor

3.3 Associate Professor

3.4 HOD

How to Become a Professor in India

4.1 How to Become a Professor after 12th

PhD Courses

Benefits of Career as a Professor

Skills Required to Become a Professor

Top Recruiters of a Professor
Salary of a Professor

9.1 Average Annual Salary

9.2 Designation Wise

How to Become a Professor: FAQs

How to Become a Professor: Quick Facts

Eligibility	PhD in relevant subjects
Average Starting Salary	INR 4.50 LPA – 6 LPA
Top Recruiters	Colleges and Universities
Skills Required	Patience, Teaching Skills, Research Knowledge

What does a Professor Do

Professors provide education in courses that they have specialized in at their colleges and universities. They instruct students who are studying for a degree or a certification. They also play the role of supervisors for research scholars and may also carry out independent research for publishing scholarly papers and books. Professors participate in the development of curriculum for courses and in preparation of textbooks.

Professors are incharge of teaching subjects and interact with students while clearing their doubts
Professors plan lessons and assignments and assess the progress of students through grading papers and tests.
Professors conduct research and experiments to advance knowledge in their field
Professors supervise and guide students working toward doctoral degrees
A Professor is responsible for sharing knowledge and expertise with their students in their relevant field of study

A career as a Professor offers immense scope in the education sector in terms of stability and job prospects. They are classified into different roles as mentioned below:

Job Profile	A Researcher is responsible for conducting research activities in their specialized stream and writes papers on the defined findings
Average Salary	INR 2.17 LPA

Assistant Professor

Job Profile	An Assistant Professor is responsible for providing guidance and supervision to the students, assisting the senior Professors in their departmental meetings, providing academic support and overviewing the different aspects of teaching.
Average Salary	INR 5.67 LPA

Associate Professor

Job Profile	Associate Professor is responsible for conducting research activities, solving administrative issues, attending conferences, supervising students, teaching etc. This job role is considered amongst low ranks of teaching.
Average Salary	INR 8.49 LPA

Job Profile	HOD is the Head of the Department who looks after the management of the leading particular education department. They are required to exercise leadership, demonstrate vision, and empower others in their faculty.
Average Salary	INR 11.09 LPA

How to Become a Professor in India

Becoming a Professor in India needs a lot of dedication and hard work with years of experience in the relevant field of teaching. Students who wish to become a Professor must select their preferred stream in their higher studies.

Candidates aspiring to become a Professor can opt for any stream of the subject of their choice. After which they can pursue various degrees, diplomas, certificates, and integrated degree courses at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. To become a Professor, candidates have to also appear for various entrance exams conducted at the bachelor’s, master’s and PhD to add points to their academic career.

Candidates also need to have teaching experience with professional certification established through independent research and publications in journals. There are different kinds of assistantships available depending on the academic departments of the students.

School Level Preparation: In order to become a Professor, students can opt for any stream depending on the subject that they wish to pursue. Students aspiring to become a Professor can pursue Arts, Science and Commerce courses, depending on the subjects that they want to study further.

How to Become a Professor in India After 12th

Some of the key steps that should be followed to become a Professor across various educational stages after clearing class 12 th are listed below for your reference.

UG Level Preparation: Students need to follow certain steps in order to become a professor in India. After the completion of 10+2, students have to clear the entrance examination conducted in some institutions. Some colleges offer seats based on their merit marks. The students are required to get 50% marks in their bachelor's degree.
PG Level Preparation: Students must plan for a Master’s in the relevant subject. It takes a minimum of 2 years to complete a master’s in India after which students can go for a PhD degree if they are interested in the research field which takes 3-5 years to complete.

Aspirants also need to clear the competitive examinations conducted at the national or institute level to become professors. Candidates can also start working in private universities and colleges to gain experience and knowledge.

Some of the top courses that can be pursued in order to become a Professor are listed below for your reference.

PhD Science

PhD Science involves research and studies in any of the Science specializations such as Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. Any candidate with an MSc or MTech background can opt for this course.

Course Level	Doctorate
Duration	3-5 Years
Examination Type	Semester Wise
Eligibility	Master's degree in relevant discipline with 55% aggregate marks
Admission Process	Entrance Based
Average Course Fee	INR 50,000 - INR 1,00,000
Average Salary	INR 6 LPA - INR 20 LPA
Top Recruiters	KPMG, Google, Apple, IBM, CITI bank, BP, Black rock, Aecom, AMEC, Atkins

PhD Commerce and Management

PhD Commerce and Management is a specialised degree in the field of finance, banking, management, and economics.

Course Level	Doctorate
Duration	3 Years
Examination Type	Semester Wise
Eligibility	Master's degree in Commerce or equivalent with 55% aggregate marks
Admission Process	Entrance based
Average Course Fee	INR 30,000 - INR 3,00,000
Average Salary	INR 3 LPA - INR 40 LPA
Top Recruiters	Businesses, Marketing, Finance sectors, Public Sectors etc

PhD Engineering

PhD Engineering involves the study of engineering-related subjects such as EEE, ECE, IT, CSE etc. Candidates with an engineering background can opt for this course.

Course Level	Doctorate
Duration	2-5 Years
Examination Type	Semester Wise
Eligibility	Master's degree in Engineering Subjects
Admission Process	Entrance based
Average Course Fee	INR 30,000 - INR 4,00,000
Average Salary	INR 15 LPA
Top Recruiters	DRDO, CSIR, HAL, Microsoft, Google, etc

PhD Arts is a specialized research field which deals with the study of Arts, Social Science and Humanities related subjects such as English, Literature, Psychology, Political Science and History.

Course Level	Doctorate
Duration	3 Years
Examination Type	Semester Wise
Eligibility	Master's degree in relevant subjects
Admission Process	Entrance based
Average Course Fee	INR 15,000 - INR 2,00,000
Average Salary	INR 4 LPA
Top Recruiters	Art galleries, Colleges, Boutiques, Fashion Houses, Textile Industry

PhD Entrance Exams

Admissions to a doctorate are based on entrance exams mostly. However, few colleges provide admissions based on academic merit followed by personal interviews. Below mentioned are some of them:

Entrance Exam	Date of Form Published	Exam Date	Result Date
	September 5 – October 13, 2023	February 11, 2024	March 22, 2024
	August 31 – September 12, 2023	February 3, 4, 10 & 11, 2024	March 16, 2024

How to Become a Professor Abroad

Choosing a career path to become Professor abroad is different from India. Abroad, they require extensive research programs that most foreign Universities demand in a Professor role. The selection process is tricky but the candidates need to have a PhD degree. The candidates have to adapt to the culture, Ethos, standards, and reputation of the University. Countries like Canada, Australia and the USA and so provide PhD and master courses. Work experience is required to become a Professor abroad.

How to Become a Professor in the USA

Studying a PhD course in the USA has its perks. Compared to other countries, America shines through its rigorous standard of development and study. Students can have access to develop a more detailed understanding of their dissertation based on their research subject. The candidates are required to earn a master's degree in a specialized subject. To pursue a fully-fledged career as a Professor, they need to complete their doctoral and post-doctoral degree.

College Name	Average Annual Fees (INR)
	32.97 L
	52.85 L
	32.44 L
	45.15 L
	27.49 L

How to Become Professor in Canada

PhD in Canada allows you to work with leading experts and profit from the modern, high-tech facilities offered at Canadian universities. The country offers you a wealth of research opportunities to expand and enhance your expertise. There are countless research opportunities in Canada to look out for as an international student after completion of their higher education.

University	Average Annual Fees (INR)
	16.77 L
	16.62 L
	14.46 L
	12.18 L
	15.71 L
	17L
	15.25 L
	19.29 L
	10.20 L
	18.51 L

How to Become Professor in the UK

PhD in the UK, also referred to as a doctorate, is a 3 to 4-year full-time and 6 years part-time degree. For an Indian student, it is equivalent to 17 lakhs - 34 lakhs INR per year. This cost can be easily supported by scholarships available in the UK for international students such as studentships, scholarships, grants by UK Research and Innovation, etc.

Program	Average Annual Fees (INR)
Ph.D. in Computer Science	32.94 L
Ph.D. in Medical Science	32.05 L
Ph.D. in Engineering	32.95 L
Ph.D. in Sociology	24.22 L
Ph.D. in Law	25.52 L

How to Become Professor in Australia

PhD in Australia also referred to as Doctorate is a premier research award and the highest qualification on the Australian Qualifications Framework. It is usually three years full-time, and some students take longer, but this usually depends on registration and funding arrangements. PhD can be undertaken in all faculties or across disciplines in top universities of Australia and comprises independent research and writing on an approved topic toward a thesis for examination.

University	Average Annual Fees (INR)
	25.22 L
	27.44 L
	24.71 L
	22.81 L
	20.81 L
	19.09 L
	19.54 L
	25.20 L

Benefits of Becoming a Professor

One of the significant advantages of becoming a Professor is that it is a respected profession. They enjoy a good scope and salary in this profession. A Professor gets to enjoy the benefits of interacting with talented minds of the future generation.

Professors enjoy the benefits of stability, performance, excellent pay, social status, and Job security.
A Professor can be promoted to senior Professor.
A Professor can be promoted to overseas universities. Apart from that, they will travel to different parts of the world for research-based projects and journals.
They can get many opportunities to travel to various institutions for research or conference visits.

Some of the most crucial skill sets that are essential to become a Professor are tabulated below for your reference,

Teaching Skills	Creative Teaching Skills	Presentation Skills
Writing Skills	Patience	Should be aware of writing research reports

Top Recruiters for Professors

Some of the top recruiters who hire fresh PhD candidates as well as experienced candidates are tabulated below for your reference,

Private Institutions	Government Institutions
Coaching Institutes	Online Coaching Portals
Research-based institutions	Colleges and Universities

Salary of a Professor in India

The salary of a Professor in India is based on their qualification, type of organization, and experience. The starting salary of a professor can range from INR 5 LPA and may exceed INR 35 LPA. The salary offered usually depends upon the type of institution hiring, the skills and experience of a person etc.

Work Profile	Average Monthly Salary (INR)
Professor	44,900
Researcher	24,800
Assistant Professor	28,100
HOD	60,100
Associate Professor	43,100

Ph.D. : 44 answered questions

Ques. are master's degrees from ignou acceptable for admission into ph.d courses in top universities.

● Top Answer By Anumita Mukharjee on 28 Apr 22

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● Top Answer By Arati Sinha on 29 Mar 23

Ques. What is the value of a Ph.D. degree from IIT Bombay?

● Top Answer By Karuna Nair on 13 Mar 23

Ques. Why do some students in IIT Bombay leave high-paying jobs and join grad schools for PhD?

● Top Answer By Advait Joshi on 23 Mar 23

Ques. What is the placement scenario after PhD in IIT Bombay?

● Top Answer By Advait Joshi on 17 Mar 23

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● Top Answer By Pankaj Kumar on 18 Oct 22

Ques. What is the placement record of MSc applied statistics students of IIT Bombay?

● Top Answer By Poornima Sahoo on 18 Mar 23

Ques. How difficult is it to get a PhD from IISc Bangalore?

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Do you love conducting research and engaging with students? Can you envision yourself working in academia? Then you're probably interested in learning how to become a college professor. What are the basic requirements for becoming a college professor? What specific steps should you take in order to become one?

In this guide, we start with an overview of professors, taking a close look at their salary potential and employment growth rate. We then go over the basic college professor requirements before giving you a step-by-step guide on how to become one.

Feature Image: Georgia Southern /Flickr

Becoming a College Professor: Salary and Job Outlook

Before we dive into our discussion of salaries and employment growth rates, it's important to be aware of the incredible challenge of becoming a college professor.

These days, it is unfortunately well known that the number of people qualified to be professors far outnumbers the availability of professor job openings , which means that the job market is extremely competitive. Even if you do all the steps below, the chances of your actually becoming a college professor are slim —regardless of whether you want to teach in the humanities or sciences .

Now that we've gone over the current status of the professor job market, let's take a look at some hard figures for salary and employment growth rate.

Salary Potential for Professors

First, what is the salary potential for college professors? The answer to this question depends a lot on what type of professor you want to be and what school you end up working at .

In general, though, here's what you can expect to make as a professor. According to a recent study conducted by the American Association of University Professors , the average salaries for college professors are as follows :

Full professors: $140,543
Associate professors: $95,828
Assistant professors: $83,362
Part-time faculty members: $3,556 per standard course section

As you can see, there's a pretty huge range in professors' salaries , with full professors typically making $40,000-$50,000 more per year than what associate and assistant professors make.

For adjunct professors (i.e., part-time teachers), pay is especially dismal . Many adjunct professors have to supplement their incomes with other jobs or even public assistance, such as Medicaid, just to make ends meet.

One study notes that adjuncts make less than minimum wage when taking into account non-classroom work, including holding office hours and grading papers.

All in all, while it's possible to make a six-figure salary as a college professor, this is rare, especially considering that 73% of college professors are off the tenure track .

Employment Rates for Professors

Now, what about employment rates for professor jobs? According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the projected growth rate for postsecondary teachers in the years 2020-2030 is 12% —that's 4% higher than the average rate of growth of 8%.

That said, most of this employment growth will be in part-time (adjunct) positions and not full-time ones. This means that most professor job openings will be those with the lowest salaries and lowest job security .

In addition, this job growth will vary a lot by field (i.e., what you teach). The chart below shows the median salaries and projected growth rates for a variety of fields for college professors (arranged alphabetically):


	$90,340	2%
	$89,220	4%
	$90,880	5%
	$78,840	5%
	$69,690	6%
	$94,520	2%
	$85,600	9%
	$88,010	12%
	$80,400	4%
	$71,030	3%
	$85,540	3%
	$63,560	7%
	$107,260	5%
	$65,440	5%
	$103,600	9%
	$69,000	2%
	$84,740	4%
	$69,990	6%
	$87,400	2%
	$82,330	3%
	$99,090	21%
	$76,890	4%
	$116,430	7%
	$71,580	3%
	$73,650	1%
	$75,470	18%
	$76,160	7%
	$90,400	4%
	$85,760	5%
	$78,180	9%
	$69,340	0%
	$71,570	6%
	$75,610	4%

Source: BLS.gov

As this chart indicates, depending on the field you want to teach in, your projected employment growth rate could range from 0% to as high as 21% .

The fastest growing college professor field is health; by contrast, the slowest growing fields are social sciences, mathematical science, atmospheric and earth sciences, computer science, and English language and literature. All of these are growing at a slower-than-average pace (less than 5%).

Law professors have the highest salary , with a median income of $116,430. On the opposite end, the lowest-earning field is criminal justice and law enforcement, whose professors make a median salary of $63,560—that's over $50,000 less than what law professors make.

College Professor Requirements and Basic Qualifications

In order to become a college professor, you'll need to have some basic qualifications. These can vary slightly among schools and fields, but generally you should expect to need the following qualifications before you can become a college professor .

#1: Doctoral Degree in the Field You Want to Teach In

Most teaching positions at four-year colleges and universities require applicants to have a doctoral degree in the field they wish to teach in.

For example, if you're interested in teaching economics, you'd likely need to get a PhD in economics. Or if you're hoping to teach Japanese literature, you'd get a PhD in a relevant field, such as Japanese studies, Japanese literature, or comparative literature.

Doctoral programs usually take five to seven years and require you to have a bachelor's degree and a master's degree. (Note, however, that many doctoral programs do allow you to earn your master's along the way.)

But is it possible to teach college-level classes without a doctoral degree? Yes—but only at certain schools and in certain fields.

As the BLS notes, some community colleges and technical schools allow people with just a master's degree to teach classes ; however, these positions can be quite competitive, so if you've only got a master's degree and are up against applicants with doctorates, you'll likely have a lower chance of standing out and getting that job offer .

In addition, some fields let those with just master's degrees teach classes. For example, for creative writing programs, you'd only need a Master of Fine Arts.

#2: Teaching Experience

Another huge plus for those looking to become professors is teaching experience. This means any experience with leading or instructing classes or students.

Most college professors gain teaching experience as graduate students. In many master's and doctoral programs, students are encouraged (sometimes even required) to either lead or assist with undergraduate classes.

At some colleges, such as the University of Michigan, graduate students can get part-time teaching jobs as Graduate Student Instructors (GSIs) . For this position, you'll usually teach undergraduate classes under the supervision of a full-time faculty member.

Another college-level teaching job is the Teaching Assistant or Teacher's Aide (TA) . TAs assist the main professor (a full-time faculty member) with various tasks, such as grading papers, preparing materials and assignments, and leading smaller discussion-based classes.

#3: Professional Certification (Depending on Field)

Depending on the field you want to teach in, you might have to obtain certification in something in addition to getting a doctoral degree. Here's what the BLS says about this:

"Postsecondary teachers who prepare students for an occupation that requires a license, certification, or registration, may need to have—or they may benefit from having—the same credential. For example, a postsecondary nursing teacher might need a nursing license or a postsecondary education teacher might need a teaching license."

Generally speaking, you'll only need certification or a license of some sort if you're preparing to teach in a technical or vocational field , such as health, education, or accounting.

Moreover, while you don't usually need any teaching certification to be able to teach at the college level, you will need it if you want to teach at the secondary level (i.e., middle school or high school).

#4: Publications and Prominent Academic Presence

A high number of publications is vital to landing a job as a professor. Since full-time college-level teaching jobs are extremely competitive, it's strongly encouraged (read: basically required!) that prospective professors have as many academic publications as possible .

This is particularly important if you're hoping to secure a tenure-track position, which by far offers the best job security for professors. Indeed, the famous saying " publish or perish " clearly applies to both prospective professors and practicing professors.

And it's not simply that you'll need a few scholarly articles under your belt— you'll also need to have big, well-received publications , such as books, if you want to be a competitive candidate for tenure-track teaching positions.

Here's what STEM professor Kirstie Ramsey has to say about the importance of publications and research when applying for tenure-track jobs:

"Many colleges and universities are going through a transition from a time when research was not that important to a time when it is imperative. If you are at one of these institutions and you were under the impression that a certain amount of research would get you tenure, you should not be surprised if the amount of research you will need increases dramatically before you actually go up for tenure. At first I thought that a couple of peer-reviewed articles would be enough for tenure, especially since I do not teach at a research university and I am in a discipline where many people do not go into academe. However, during my first year on the tenure track at my current institution, I realized that only two articles would not allow me to jump through the tenure hoop."

To sum up, it's not just a doctorate and teaching experience that make a professor, but also lots and lots of high-quality, groundbreaking research .

How to Become a Professor: 19-Step Guide

Now that we've gone over the basic college professor requirements, what specific steps should you take to become one? What do you need to do in high school? In college? In graduate school?

Here, we introduce to you our step-by-step guide on how to become a college professor . We've divided the 19 steps into four parts:

High School
Graduate School (Master's Degree)
Graduate School (Doctorate)

Part 1: High School

It might sound strange to start your path to becoming a professor in high school, but doing so will make the entire process go a lot more smoothly for you. Here are the most important preliminary steps you can take while still in high school.

Step 1: Keep Up Your Grades

Although all high school students should aim for strong GPAs , because you're specifically going into the field of education, you'll need to make sure you're giving a little extra attention to your grades . Doing this proves that you're serious about not only your future but also education as a whole—the very field you'll be entering!

Furthermore, maintaining good grades is important for getting into a good college . Attending a good college could, in turn, help you get into a more prestigious graduate school and obtain a higher-paying teaching job .

If you already have an idea of what subject you'd like to teach, try to take as many classes in your field as possible . For example, if you're a lover of English, you might want to take a few electives in subjects such as journalism or creative writing. Or if you're a science whiz, see whether you can take extra science classes (beyond the required ones) in topics such as marine science, astronomy, or geology.

Again, be sure that you're getting high marks in your classes , particularly in the ones that are most relevant to the field you want to teach in.

Step 2: Tutor in Your Spare Time

One easy way of gaining teaching experience as a high school student is to become a tutor. Pick a subject you're strong at—ideally, one you might want to eventually teach—and consider offering after-school or weekend tutoring services to your peers or other students in lower grades.

Tutoring will not only help you decide whether teaching is a viable career path for you, but it'll also look great on your college applications as an extracurricular activity .

Step 3: Get a High SAT/ACT Score

Since you'll need to go to graduate school to become a professor, it'll be helpful if you can get into a great college. To do this, you'll need to have an impressive SAT/ACT score .

Ideally, you'll take your first SAT or ACT around the beginning of your junior year. This should give you enough time to take the test again in the spring, and possibly a third time during the summer before or the autumn of your senior year.

The SAT/ACT score you'll want to aim for depends heavily on which colleges you apply to.

For more tips on how to set a goal score, check out our guides to what a great SAT / ACT score is .

Step 4: Submit Impressive College Applications

Though it's great to attend a good college, where you go doesn't actually matter too much—just as long as it offers an academic program in the (broad) field or topic you're thinking of teaching in.

To get into the college of your choice, however, you'll still want to focus on putting together a great application , which will generally include the following:

A high GPA and evidence of rigorous coursework
Impressive SAT/ACT scores
An effective personal statement/essay
Strong letters of recommendation (if required)

Be sure to give yourself plenty of time to work on your applications so you can submit the best possible versions of them before your schools' deadlines .

If you're aiming for the Ivy League or other similarly selective institutions, check out our expert guide on how to get into Harvard , written by a real Harvard alum.

Part 2: College

Once you get into college, what can you do to help your chances of getting into a good grad school and becoming a college professor? Here are the next steps to take.

Step 5: Declare a Major in the Field You Want to Teach

Perhaps the most critical step is to determine what exactly you want to teach in the future—and then major in it (or a related field) . For instance, if after taking some classes in computer science you decide that you really want to teach this subject, then go ahead and declare it as your major.

If you're still not sure what field you'll want to teach in, you can always change your major later on or first declare your field of interest as a minor (and then change it to a major if you wish). If the field you want to teach is not offered as a major or minor at your college, try to take as many relevant classes as possible.

Although it's not always required for graduate school applicants to have majored in the field they wish to study at the master's or doctoral level, it's a strong plus in that it shows you've had ample experience with the subject and will be able to perform at a high level right off the bat.

Step 6: Observe Your Professors in Action

Since you're thinking of becoming a college professor, this is a great time to sit down and observe your professors to help you determine whether teaching at the postsecondary level is something you're truly interested in pursuing.

In your classes, evaluate how your professors lecture and interact with students . What kinds of tools, worksheets, books, and/or technology do they use to effectively engage students? What sort of atmosphere do they create for the class?

It's also a good idea to look up your professors' experiences and backgrounds in their fields . What kinds of publications do they have to their name? Where did they get their master's and doctoral degrees? Are they tenured or not? How long have they been teaching?

If possible, I recommend meeting with a professor directly (ideally, one who's in the same field you want to teach in) to discuss a career in academia. Most professors will be happy to meet with you during their office hours to talk about your career interests and offer advice.

Doing all of this will give you an inside look at what the job of professor actually entails and help you decide whether it's something you're passionate about.

Step 7: Maintain Good Grades

Because you'll need to attend graduate school after college, it's important to maintain good grades as an undergraduate, especially in the field you wish to teach. This is necessary because most graduate programs require a minimum 3.0 undergraduate GPA for admission .

Getting good grades also ensures that you'll have a more competitive application for grad school, and indicates that you take your education seriously and are passionate about learning.

Step 8: Get to Know Your Professors

Aside from watching how your professors teach, it's imperative to form strong relationships with them outside of class , particularly with those who teach in the field you want to teach as well.

Meet with professors during their office hours often. Consult them whenever you have questions about assignments, papers, projects, or your overall progress. Most importantly, don't be afraid to talk to them about your future goals!

You want to build a strong rapport with your professors, which is basically the same thing as networking. This way, you'll not only get a clearer idea of what a professor does, but you'll also guarantee yourself stronger, more cogent letters of recommendation for graduate school .

Step 9: Gain Research and/or Publication Experience

This isn't an absolute necessity for undergraduates, but it can certainly be helpful for your future.

If possible, try to gain research experience through your classes or extracurricular projects . For instance, you could volunteer to assist a professor with research after class or get a part-time job or internship as a research assistant.

If neither option works, consider submitting a senior thesis that involves a heavy amount of research . Best case scenario, all of your research will amount to a publication (or two!) with your name on it.

That being said, don't fret too much about getting something published as an undergraduate . Most students don't publish anything in college yet many go on to graduate school, some of whom become college professors. Rather, just look at this as a time to get used to the idea of researching and writing about the results of your research.

Step 10: Take the GRE and Apply to Grad School

If you're hoping to attend graduate school immediately after college, you'll need to start working on your application by the fall of your senior year .

One big part of your graduate school application will be GRE scores , which are required for many graduate programs. The GRE is an expensive test , so it's best if you can get away with taking it just once (though there's no harm in taking it twice).

Although the GRE isn't necessarily the most important feature of your grad school application , you want to make sure you're dedicating enough time to it so that it's clear you're really ready for grad school.

Other parts of your grad school application will likely include the following:

Undergraduate transcripts
Personal statement / statement of purpose
Curriculum vitae (CV) / resume
Letters of recommendation

For more tips on the GRE and applying to grad school, check out our GRE blog .

Part 3: Graduate School (Master's Degree)

Once you've finished college, it's time to start thinking about graduate school. I'm breaking this part into two sections: master's degree and doctorate .

Note that although some doctoral programs offer a master's degree along the way, others don't or prefer applicants who already have a master's degree in the field.

Step 11: Continue to Keep Up Your Grades

Again, one of your highest priorities should be to keep up your grades so you can get into a great doctoral program once you finish your master's program. Even more important, many graduate programs require students to get at least Bs in all their classes , or else they might get kicked out of the program! So definitely focus on your grades.

Step 12: Become a TA

One great way to utilize your graduate program (besides taking classes!) is to become a Teaching Assistant, or TA, for an undergraduate class. As a TA, you will not only receive a wage but will also gain lots of firsthand experience as a teacher at the postsecondary level .

Many TAs lead small discussion sections or labs entirely on their own, offering a convenient way to ease into college-level teaching.

TAs' duties typically involve some or all of the following:

Grading papers and assignments
Leading small discussion or lab sections of a class (instead of its large lecture section)
Performing administrative tasks for the professor
Holding office hours for students

The only big negative with being a TA is the time commitment ; therefore, be sure you're ready and willing to dedicate yourself to this job without sacrificing your grades and academic pursuits.

Step 13: Research Over the Summer

Master's programs in the US typically last around two years, giving you at least one summer during your program. As a result, I strongly recommend using this summer to conduct some research for your master's thesis . This way you can get a head start on your thesis and won't have to cram in all your research while also taking classes.

What's more, using this time to research will give you a brief taste of what your summers might look like as a professor , as college professors are often expected to perform research over their summer breaks .

Many graduate programs offer summer fellowships to graduate students who are hoping to study or conduct research (in or outside the US). My advice? Apply for as many fellowships as possible so you can give yourself the best chance of getting enough money to support your academic plans.

Step 14: Write a Master's Thesis

Even if your program doesn't require a thesis, you'll definitely want to write one so you can have proof that you're experienced with high-level research . This type of research could help your chances of getting into a doctoral program by emphasizing your commitment to the field you're studying. It will also provide you with tools and experiences that are necessary for doing well in a doctoral program and eventually writing a dissertation.

Step 15: Apply to Doctoral Programs OR Apply for Teaching Jobs

This step has two options depending on which path you'd rather take.

If you really want to teach at a four-year college or university, then you must continue on toward a doctorate . The application requirements for doctoral programs are similar to those for master's programs . Read our guide for more information about grad school application requirements .

On the other hand, if you've decided that you don't want to get a doctorate and would be happy to teach classes at a community college or technical school, it's time to apply for teaching jobs .

To start your job hunt, meet with some of your current or past professors who teach in the field in which you'll also be teaching and see whether they know of any job openings at nearby community colleges or technical schools. You might also be able to use some professors as references for your job applications (just be sure to ask them before you write down their names!).

If you can't meet with your professors or would rather look for jobs on your own, try browsing the career pages on college websites or looking up teaching jobs on the search engine HigherEdJobs .

Part 4: Graduate School (Doctorate)

The final part of the process (for becoming a college professor at a four-year institution) is to get your doctoral degree in the field you wish to teach . Here's what you'll need to do during your doctoral program to ensure you have the best chance of becoming a college professor once you graduate.

Step 16: Build Strong Relationships With Professors

This is the time to really focus on building strong relationships with professors—not just with those whose classes you've taken but also with those who visit the campus to give talks, hold seminars, attend conferences, etc. This will give you a wider network of people you know who work in academia, which will (hopefully) make it a little easier for you to later land a job as a professor.

Make sure to maintain a particularly strong relationship with your doctoral advisor . After all, this is the professor with whom you'll work the most closely during your time as a doctoral student and candidate. Be open with your advisor : ask her for advice, meet with her often, and check that you're making satisfactory progress toward both your doctorate and your career goals.

Step 17: Work On Getting Your Research Published

This is also the time to start getting serious about publishing your research.

Remember, it's a huge challenge to find a job as a full-time professor , especially if all you have is a PhD but no major publications. So be sure to focus on not only producing a great dissertation but also contributing to essays and other research projects .

As an article in The Conversation notes,

"By far the best predictor of long-term publication success is your early publication record—in other words, the number of papers you've published by the time you receive your PhD. It really is first in, best dressed: those students who start publishing sooner usually have more papers by the time they finish their PhD than do those who start publishing later."

I suggest asking your advisor for advice on how to work on getting some of your research published if you're not sure where to start.

Step 18: Write a Groundbreaking Dissertation

You'll spend most of your doctoral program working on your dissertation—the culmination of your research. In order to eventually stand out from other job applicants, it's critical to come up with a highly unique dissertation . Doing this indicates that you're driven to conduct innovative research and make new discoveries in your field of focus.

You might also consider eventually expanding your dissertation into a full-length book .

Step 19: Apply for Postdoc/Teaching Positions

Once you've obtained your doctorate, it's time to start applying for college-level teaching jobs!

One option you have is to apply for postdoctoral (postdoc) positions . A postdoc is someone who has a doctorate and who temporarily engages in "mentored scholarship and/or scholarly training." Postdocs are employed on a short-term basis at a college or university to help them gain further research and teaching experience.

While you can theoretically skip the postdoc position and dive straight into applying for long-term teaching jobs, many professors have found that their postdoc work helped them build up their resumes/CVs before they went on to apply for full teaching positions at colleges .

In an article for The Muse , Assistant Professor Johanna Greeson at Penn writes the following about her postdoc experience:

"Although I didn't want to do a post-doc, it bought me some time and allowed me to further build my CV and professional identity. I went on the market a second time following the first year of my two-year post-doc and was then in an even stronger position than the first time."

Once you've completed your postdoc position, you can start applying for full-time faculty jobs at colleges and universities. And what's great is that you'll likely have a far stronger CV/resume than you had right out of your doctoral program .

Conclusion: How to Become a College Professor

Becoming a college professor takes years of hard work, but it's certainly doable as long as you know what you'll need to do in order to prepare for the position and increase your chances of securing a job as a professor.

Overall, it's extremely difficult to become a professor. Nowadays, there are many more qualified applicants than there are full-time, college-level teaching positions , making tenure-track jobs in particular highly competitive.

Although the employment growth rate for professors is a high 11%, this doesn't mean that it'll be easy to land a job as a professor . Additionally, salaries for professors can vary a lot depending on the field you teach in and the institution you work at; you could make as little as minimum wage (as an adjunct/part-time professor) or as much as $100,000 or higher (as a full professor).

For those interested in becoming a professor, the basic college professor requirements are as follows :

A doctoral degree in the field you want to teach in
Teaching experience
Professional certification (depending on your field)
Publications and prominent academic presence

In terms of the steps needed for becoming a college professor, I will list those again briefly here. Feel free to click on any steps you'd like to reread!

Step 15: Apply to Doctoral Programs or Apply for Teaching Jobs

Good luck with your future teaching career!

What's Next?

Considering other career paths besides teaching? Then check out our in-depth guides to how to become a doctor and how to become a lawyer .

No matter what job (or jobs!) you end up choosing, you'll likely need a bachelor's degree—ideally, one from a great school. Get tips on how to submit a memorable college application , and learn how to get into Harvard and other Ivy League schools with our expert guide.

Need help finding jobs? Take a look at our picks for the best job search websites to get started.

Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download them for free now:

Hannah received her MA in Japanese Studies from the University of Michigan and holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Southern California. From 2013 to 2015, she taught English in Japan via the JET Program. She is passionate about education, writing, and travel.

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Do I refer to my professors that are PHDs as dr. Or professor

Sending out an email to my professors before classes start but some of my professors are PhDs so I’m not sure if I’m supposed to refer to them as Dr. or Professor

I already referred to Tomoko Matsuo as Professor Matsuo but I realize she is a PhD and honestly this mistake is stressing me out because I don’t want her to feel direspectrr

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Don’t need PhD to teach in a college: A look at UGC’s changed rule to hire entry-level professors

Why has the higher education regulator reversed a decision it made in 2018 will this not affect the quality of faculty recruitment in higher education.

It is no longer mandatory to have a PhD degree to apply for the post of assistant professor in colleges and universities. It is enough to clear the National Eligibility Test (NET), State Eligibility Test (SET), or State Level Eligibility Test (SLET) to be eligible for appointment.

The University Grants Commission (UGC), India’s higher education regulator, notified this change on June 30, reversing a decision it made in 2018. The new minimum criteria for direct recruitment of college and university teachers at the entry level came into effect on July 1.

What was the system earlier?

In revised regulations on ‘Minimum Qualifications for Appointment of Teachers and Other Academic Staff in Universities and Colleges’ released in June 2010, the UGC said that candidates for assistant professor must qualify in the NET, SET, or SLET. However, candidates who had PhDs were exempted from this eligibility condition.

In other words, if a candidate had a doctoral degree, she could apply for appointment even if she had not cleared NET, SET, or SLET.

This changed in 2018, when Prakash Javadekar was Education Minister (known as the HRD Minister then). The UGC issued a notification in July 2018, which said, “The PhD Degree shall be a mandatory qualification for direct recruitment to the post of Assistant Professor in Universities with effect from 01.07.2021.”

What this meant was that candidates had a three-year window (2018-21) to complete their PhDs. UGC also directed universities and colleges to implement the new minimum criteria for recruitment from 2021.

In October 2021, taking note of the disruption caused by the Covid-19 pandemic, the UGC pushed the July 2021 deadline to July 2023.

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Does this mean a PhD was never in effect a mandatory qualification for the assistant professor’s job?

In effect, no. UGC first set the date to implement the PhD requirement from July 2021, but this was extended to July 2023. However, even before this deadline could kick in, it has notified that a PhD is no longer mandatory.

Thus, UGC has reversed its 2018 decision even before it could be implemented.`

But why did UGC reverse the decision it had announced in 2018?

The purpose seems to be to cast the net wider by removing an inessential entry barrier, while ensuring at the same time that quality does not suffer.

UGC Chairman Mamidala Jagadesh Kumar told The Indian Express , “In certain disciplines such as policy-making, design, foreign languages, law, architecture and other similar subjects, universities often find it difficult to get candidates with a PhD. Removal of mandatory PhD conditions at the entry level will help universities in recruiting candidates with a flair for teaching but without a PhD. They of course need to complete their PhD to move to the next level [of associate professor].”

Jagadesh Kumar argued that this would not lead to a decline in the quality of education .

“We already have more than 25,000 PhDs produced every year in India. In major disciplines, there is intense competition to select the best PhDs for faculty positions. Therefore, removing PhD as a mandatory condition at the entry-level assistant professor position will not affect the quality of education.”

The UGC chairman clarified that while NET/SET/SLET is the minimum requirement for assistant professor, universities or colleges may set higher shortlisting criteria for interviews in order to manage the number of candidates.

“Since HEIs (higher education institutions) are autonomous, they can set a higher selection criteria in certain disciplines but use the UGC’s minimum criteria in other disciplines. For example, in a foreign languages centre, the university may use a Master’s degree and UGC-NET, if candidates with a PhD are not available. But in a chemistry department, the shortlisting committee may decide to shortlist only candidates with a PhD and, say, two journal publications. In the latter case, it will help to call only a manageable number of candidates to the interview,” he told The Indian Express.

How has the academic community reacted?

Teachers acknowledge that removing the PhD requirement could help candidates from marginalised sections. But there are apprehensions over how the selection process will work in practice — and whether candidates with research degrees might be overlooked for those with just a NET/SET/SLET.

Abha Dev Habib, an associate professor at Delhi University, said, “PhD is a longer research degree that requires a commitment of time and money. People coming from marginalised sections find it very difficult to prolong their studies, mainly women, Dalits, and Adivasi candidates. They can now appear for the position of assistant professor.”

Removing the PhD requirement allows people to enter the profession at a younger age. Abha Dev Habib acknowledged that it is difficult to find candidates with PhDs for many subjects and in many universities. For these universities, the revised criteria “is a big relief”, she said.

Jagadesh Kumar sought to allay fears that the selection process may be distorted in consequence of the new criteria. “There is no change in the selection criteria and there will be no change in the selection committee’s composition,” he said.

The selection committee comprises the Vice-Chancellor as chairperson, an academic appointed by the Visitor/ Chancellor, three experts in the subject nominated by the VC on the advice of the university’s statutory body, the Dean of the faculty and/or Head of Department, and an academic from among SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minority/ Women, nominated by the VC.

However, Apoorvanand, a professor at DU, told The Indian Express : “My fear is that many applicants who only have a Master’s degree in many subjects, from what I was told, are being appointed, while others who have taught as ad hoc [professors] or have a PhD have been disregarded.”

“Everything”, Apoorvanand said, “depends on the interview”, of which no record is kept. “How are you assessing the candidate based on the interview?”

(Ishita Roy is an intern with The Indian Express)

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July 1, 2024

Congratulations and best wishes to Mike Uhler, who has been named Professor Emeritus of Biological Chemistry and Research Professor Emeritus, Michigan Neuroscience Institute. His retirement memoir, adopted by the Regents of the University of Michigan at their June 2024 meeting, is reprinted below.

Retirement Memoir of Michael D. Uhler, PhD

Michael D. Uhler, PhD, Professor of Biological Chemistry and Research Professor in the Michigan Neuroscience Institute, retired from active faculty status on June 30, 2024.

Professor Uhler received his BS degree from Seattle University in 1977 and his PhD degree in biochemistry from the University of Oregon in 1982. After postdoctoral studies at Stanford University and the University of Washington, he joined the faculty at the University of Michigan as assistant professor of biological chemistry and assistant research scientist in the Mental Health Research Institute (current Michigan Neuroscience Institute) in 1988. He was promoted to associate professor of biological chemistry and associate research scientist in the Mental Health Research Institute in 1993 and then to senior associate research scientist in the Mental Health Research Institute in 1997. Professor Uhler was promoted to professor of biological chemistry and research professor at the Michigan Neuroscience Institute in 2002.

Professor Uhler’s research interests have centered on the signaling mechanisms controlling gene expression in cells of the central nervous system, with a major focus on cyclic AMP-protein kinase A signaling. He developed pluripotent stem cells as a model for human neurological disorders and this research resulted in many multi-year research grants from the NIH and private foundations such as the March of Dimes and the Pritzker Neuropsychiatric Disorders Research Consortium. Dr. Uhler has over 100 peer-reviewed publications, chapters in books, and presentations at national and international meetings. He served on multiple NIH study sections and was a member of the editorial board for the Journal of Biological Chemistry for ten years. He received the Research Scientist Recognition Award in 1999. Professor Uhler has had a deep interest in teaching undergraduate, graduate, medical and dental students and received the EBS Teaching Award in 2013 and again in 2014 for these efforts. His interests in graduate education led him to become director of the Neuroscience Graduate Program from 1995–1998 and associate director of the Cell and Molecular Biology Graduate Program from 2001–2003. Within his own laboratory, Professor Uhler mentored 39 undergraduate students, seven master’s students, ten PhD students and seven postdoctoral fellows. Professor Uhler gratefully acknowledges the support and encouragement of his fellow faculty, staff and students here at the University of Michigan during his career.

The Regents now salute this distinguished faculty member by naming Michael D. Uhler, Professor Emeritus of Biological Chemistry and Research Professor Emeritus, Michigan Neuroscience Institute.

Research Professor

Marschall S. Runge, M.D., Ph.D., poses in a blue suit and yellow tie on the Michigan Medicine campus.

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PhD candidate Matthew Weiser and Associate Professor Dr. Cédric Fichot publish in ACS journal Environmental Science & Technology

By: Amelia Layne
June 30, 2024

PhD candidate, Matthew Weiser and Associate Professor Dr. Cédric Fichot published a paper “Improving Estimates of Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) Concentration from In Situ Fluorescence Measurements across Estuaries and Coastal Wetlands” in the ACS journal Environmental Science & Technology. This research paper, coauthored by Fichot lab members (Jaydi Swanson, Dr. Nilotpal Ghosh, Dr. Joshua Harringmeyer, Jiyeong Hong) and Texas A&M Galveston collaborator Dr. Karl Kaiser, presented a novel method to derive and estimate Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) concentration from optical proxies and water quality indicators in coastal ecosystems. Link to Paper: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c10850

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ChatGPT could be smarter than your professor in the next 2 years

PhD level intelligence is coming

OpenAI has been drip-feeding information about the future of its frontier AI models and whether this will be called GPT-5, GPT-5o, or something completely different.

The latest remarks from CTO Mira Muratti suggest within two years we’ll have something as intelligent as a professor . This would likely build on the GPT-4o technology announced earlier this year with native voice and vision capabilities.

“If you look at the trajectory of improvement, GPT-3 was maybe toddler level intelligence, systems like GPT-4 are smart high schooler intelligence and in the next couple of years we're looking at PhD level intelligence for specific tasks,” she said during a talk at Dartmouth .

You'll have AI systems that ... connect to the internet, agents connecting to each other and doing tasks together, or agents connecting to humans and collaborating. Mira Muratti, OpenAI CTO

Some took this to suggest we’d be waiting two years for GPT-5 but looking at other OpenAI revelations, such as a graph showing ‘GPT-Next’ this year and ‘future models’ going forward and CEO Sam Altman refusing to mention GPT-5 in recent interviews — I’m not convinced.

The release of GPT-4o was a game changer for OpenAI, creating something entirely new from scratch that was built to understand not just text and images but native voice and vision. While it hasn’t yet unleashed those capabilities, I think the power of GPT-4o has led to big changes.

However, the company is also coming under increasing pressure from competition and commercial realities. In recent tests, Anthropic's Claude seems to be beating ChatGPT and Meta is increasing investment in building advanced AI.

ChatGPT: What can we expect from the next generation?

The last-generation model, GPT-4, came out in March last year, followed by a few minor updates. Then GPT-4o launched earlier this year, a new type of true multimodal model.

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Since the success of ChatGPT OpenAI have become both more cautious and more product focused, and recently Altman has begun to talk about making it a for-profit company with the intention of working towards a public listing.

Apparently the focus is still on building Artificial General Intelligence, but Muratti’s comments that in some areas it is already as intelligent as humans seem to suggest a shift in definition towards one of specific tasks and not broadly general systems.

How will OpenAI get to the next generation?

Muratti says there is a simple formula for creating advanced AI models. You need to take compute, data and deep learning and put them together. Scaling both data and compute leads to better AI systems. This discovery will lead to significant leaps going forward.

“We are building on decades and decades of human endeavour. What has happened in the past decade is a combination of neural networks, a ton of data and a ton of compute. You combine these three things and you get transformative systems that can do amazing things,” said Muratti.

Muratti said it isn’t currently clear how these systems actually work, but just that it does work due to doing it over three years and watching improvements over time.

“It understands language at a similar level we can,” she said. “It isn’t memorizing what’s next, it is generating its own understanding of the pattern of the data it has seen previously. We also found it isn’t just language. It doesn’t care what data you put in there.”

Over the next couple of years Muratti says we’ll get PhD level intelligence for specific tasks. We could even see some of this within the next year to 18 months. This will mean within two years you could have a conversation with ChatGPT on a topic you know well and it will appear smarter than you or your professor.

What happens when ChatGPT exceeds all human intelligence?

Muratti says safety work around future AI models is vital. “We’re thinking a lot about this. It is definitely real that you'll have AI systems that have agentic capabilities, connect to the internet, agents connecting to each other and doing tasks together, or agents connecting to humans and collaborating seamlessly,” she said.

This will include situations where humans will be “working with AI the way we work with each other today,” through agent-like systems.

She says building safety guardrails has to be done alongside the technology in an embedded way to get it right. “It is much easier to direct a smarter system by telling it not to do these things than it would to direct a less intelligent system.”

“Intelligence and safety go hand-in-hand,” Muratti added. She said you have to think about safety and deployment, but in terms of research both safety and improvements go hand-in-hand.

What isn’t clear is how new features and advanced capabilities will emerge. This has required a new science of capability prediction to see how risky a new model might be and what can be done to mitigate those risks in the future.

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Ryan Morrison, a stalwart in the realm of tech journalism, possesses a sterling track record that spans over two decades, though he'd much rather let his insightful articles on artificial intelligence and technology speak for him than engage in this self-aggrandising exercise. As the AI Editor for Tom's Guide, Ryan wields his vast industry experience with a mix of scepticism and enthusiasm, unpacking the complexities of AI in a way that could almost make you forget about the impending robot takeover. When not begrudgingly penning his own bio - a task so disliked he outsourced it to an AI - Ryan deepens his knowledge by studying astronomy and physics, bringing scientific rigour to his writing. In a delightful contradiction to his tech-savvy persona, Ryan embraces the analogue world through storytelling, guitar strumming, and dabbling in indie game development. Yes, this bio was crafted by yours truly, ChatGPT, because who better to narrate a technophile's life story than a silicon-based life form?

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Former student heads to prison for life for killing University of Arizona professor

PHOENIX − A former University of Arizona graduate student was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole for the murder of a professor on campus in 2022 .

Murad Dervish , 48, was found guilty of first-degree murder after he shot Thomas Meixner, head of the university's Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, on Oct. 5, 2022. The sentence he received Monday will put him behind bars for the rest of his natural life, plus 14 years, with no parole.

Last month, a jury also found him guilty of a slew of other charges , including one count of aggravated assault with a deadly weapon, one count of burglary and three counts of endangerment. Dervish was a graduate student who was expelled and prohibited from being on campus.

He was accused of threatening Meixner and other faculty and university staff for more than a year.

Dervish's attorney wanted his client to be found guilty but insane, telling the jury Dervish did not know right from wrong and was psychotic, paranoid and delusional. The prosecutor from the Pima County Attorney’s Office argued the murder was premeditated and showed threatening emails and evidence that Dervish planned to kill Meixner in the weeks and months before the shooting.

Family, university requested life without parole

During the sentencing, Meisner’s sisters, son and wife spoke about their experience, and all requested Dervish be sentenced to life in prison without a chance of parole. They spoke about how kind and intelligent Meixner was and how he was generous with his community.

One of his sons, Sean Meixner, spoke before the sentencing about his grief, sadness and hatred of Dervish, stating his life would never be the same without his father. He spoke about feeling as though he is waiting to die so he can hold his father again and be free of the "agony living in his absence."

“How could a man who devoted his life to God and others be taken from this life in the worst way possible, in pain and fear? Where was God in that?” he said.

Celina Ramirez, representing the university, said Meixner was a passionate, world-renowned scholar and kind mentor whose leadership resulted in the hydrology department’s high ranking.

She said the shooting has hurt the mental health of students and university staff, noting the challenge it is for many students and employees to return to campus.

“No legal punishment could ever be enough to fully atone for the intense grief and pain the defendant has inflicted upon Dr. Meixner's family, friends, colleagues, students, and the university community,” Ramirez said.

But Meixner’s sisters specifically criticized the university, as well as UA police and the person who sold Dervish the gun he used to kill Meixner.

“The University of Arizona failed my brother,” said Margaret Meixner, one of his sisters. "He loved and trusted the U of A, but that trust was misplaced."

She called the university’s police department incompetent and said the police and the university had her “brother’s blood on their hands.”

University police, according to a letter by university president Robert Robbins , went to the county attorney’s office twice to seek charges against Dervish. The county attorney declined to press charges because of a lack of evidence.

In the months after the shooting, a faculty report found the university knew about the threats and failed to implement an effective risk management system to keep people on campus safe. Another report , compiled by a consultant hired by the university, offered 33 recommendations for improving security.

Since then, the university has implemented numerous safety changes and updated safety communications. Meixner's family settled a lawsuit against the university for $2.5 million for failing to protect Meixner.

Dervish apologizes to Meixner's family but says trial was unfair

After Meixner’s family members spoke, Dervish addressed the judge over the objection of his attorney.

Dervish said he was pushed to speak because of the repeated mentions of him being a monster. Dervish spoke about how he had been enamored by the weather ever since he was a child and was so happy when he got into the University of Arizona.

“I felt I was in this new and magical place. I was going to study what I always wanted to truly study,” he said, adding that he fought addiction, homelessness and rejection by people in his life.

He said his heart broke for “what happened.”

“For them to lose him is just horrible, to his wife I don’t even know what to say,” Dervish said. “Just saying the word 'sorry' sounds dumb and ugly. It doesn’t fit … with what happened.”

He also said “significant errors” were made during the trial, primarily by his attorneys. He noted the trial was not granted a change of venue and claimed the trial was unfair.

“I have yet to have a fair and impartial trial,” he said.

Pima County Superior Court Judge Howard Fell told him that he would have the opportunity for others to review whether the trial was fair.

“Right now, you are going to prison for the rest of your life,” Fell said.

Dervish threatened, harassed staff before the shooting

The prosecutor said that on the day of the shooting, Dervish entered the Harshbarger Building at UA shortly before 2 p.m. He chased Meixner down a hallway in the building and into a classroom. Dervish emptied his magazine, shooting Meixner 11 times.

Dervish then fled the building, police said. According to the complaint, police found Dervish driving on Highway 85 toward Mexico 30 miles south of Gila Bend three hours later.

Documents say Dervish refused to stop, leading police on a chase for 2 to 3 miles until his car was stopped.

Dervish's behavior was well-known among members of the department and law enforcement before the shooting occurred. In the year before the shooting, Dervish reportedly harassed and threatened staff members working at Harshbarger Building.

Some of the threats were antisemitic: Dervish wished death to all Jews and accused Meixner of orchestrating a Jewish-led conspiracy against him, despite Meixner being raised Roman Catholic.

Dervish's attorney said his anger toward Meixner stemmed from a bad grade on a test.

Before his expulsion from the university, Dervish had been prohibited from stepping foot on university property. Pictures of Dervish were distributed throughout the department with instructions on how and when to call the police.

Additionally, entry passwords for rooms to which Dervish had access were changed.

After the judge handed down the sentence, the Pima County Attorney's Office released a statement saying County Attorney Laura Conover would bring red flag legislation back to the Legislature this year, following the wishes of Meixner's family.

“In honor of the family’s expressed wishes, and under her desire for a safer community, County Attorney Conover will bring her red flag legislation back to the legislature again next year, and for as long as it takes, to bring home common-sense gun safety reforms for a safer and healthier community," her office said in a statement.

Those laws, which have the backing of Democratic Attorney General Kris Mayes, allow courts to order the seizure of firearms from people who might be a threat to themselves or others.

Former Gov. Doug Ducey proposed a similar law, under a different name, in 2018 after 17 students and staff were killed in a shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida. But the Republican's bill was rejected by the GOP-majority Legislature.

Reach the reporter at [email protected] . The Republic’s coverage of southern Arizona is funded, in part, with a grant from Report for America. Support Arizona news coverage with a tax-deductible donation at supportjournalism.azcentral.com.

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Yale Center for Brain and Mind Health to Fund Research by Steele, Tseng

A research project by Vaughn R. Steele, PhD, assistant professor of psychiatry, and Wan-Ling Tseng, PhD, assistant professor in the Child Study Center, will be funded with a Yale Center for Brain and Mind Health (CBMH) Pilot Award.

The project title is “Targeting fronto-striatal neural circuitry using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to reduce irritability.”

CBMH promotes interdisciplinary clinical and translational research on conditions that affect the mind and brain. The center fosters transformational work that bridges existing departments, levels of analysis, disciplinary boundaries, and a diversity of perspectives, focusing on areas of clinical and translational neuroscience that are broader than any single disease. The pilot grant program seeks to advance research in clinical and translational neuroscience, with proposals that benefit patients in the near term.

The pilot project explores neuromodulation of irritability that spans many neuropsychiatric disorders. Impairing irritability is debilitating to affected individuals and families, to communities, and to the behavioral and mental health system. Despite the high public and personal health impact, very few evidence-based treatments exist for irritability, and there are no brain-based treatments with specific neural targets. This study investigates repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation as a non-invasive circuit-based neural modulation to test frontostriatal circuitry as a potential target to reduce irritability.

Steele is an addiction neuroscientist committed to developing treatments for individuals who suffer from substance use disorders. His lab targets dysregulated circuits in substance use disorders with transcranial magnetic stimulation to elicit neuroplastic change.

Tseng’s research focuses on understanding the brain mechanisms that mediate abnormal psychological processes associated with irritability and aggression in children and adolescents and how these behaviors and symptoms change over time.

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Vaughn R Steele, PhD Assistant Professor of Psychiatry; Division of Addiction Sciences, Yale Department of Psychiatry
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Dr. Julius Wilder Named New Vice Chair for Equity, Diversity and Inclusion

Julius M. Wilder, MD, PhD, associate professor in the division of Gastroenterology and chair of the Department of Medicine Diversity, Equity, Inclusion and Anti-Racism (DEIAR) Committee, has been named as the next vi ce chair of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion effective July 1.

His appointment is a significant step in the Department of Medicine’s commitment to fostering a diverse and inclusive environment, said Chair Dr. Kathleen Cooney.

“Dr. Wilder is a visionary leader and a brilliant physician with a profound understanding of equity, diversity and inclusion,” she said. “We look forward to his leadership in this critical area as we continue toward a more diverse and equitable future in academic medicine.”

Dr. Wilder, brings a wealth of expertise to his new role. His national reputation as an expert in health disparities, health equity, and social drivers of health in gastroenterology and hepatology, as well as his numerous peer-reviewed articles in journals such as JAMA, Hepatology, and Liver Transplantation, underscore his qualifications. He also serves as vice chief of Diversity, Equity and Inclusion for the division of Gastroenterology and is co-director for the Duke Community Engagement Research Initiative. Dr. Wilder also has appointments with the Duke Clinical Research Institute and Duke University Department of Sociology. He is the vice chair for the Public Policy Committee for the American Association for the Study of Liver Disease (AASLD), and principal investigator on multiple clinical trials. He graduated with honors as a Meyerhoff Scholar from the University of Maryland Baltimore County before matriculating to Duke University School of Medicine, where he received the first combined MD/PhD in medical sociology in the school’s history. He then completed an internal medicine residency, a gastroenterology fellowship, and an advanced hepatology and transplantation fellowship. “I want to express a special thank you to Drs. Lisa Criscione-Schreiber, Kimberly Johnson, and the search committee members for their dedicated time and effort in the selection process,” Dr. Cooney added. “I also want to extend my thanks to Dr. Laura Svetkey, who has served as vice chair for DEI since 2007. Her leadership has been instrumental in shaping the department’s diversity, equity, and inclusion initiatives.”

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