develop a case study material on any mass media

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• > How Does Media Influence Social Norms? Experimental...

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Media and the microfoundations of social norms change, unesco’s campaign: a media intervention in san bartolomé quialana, research design, empirical strategy, how does media influence social norms experimental evidence on the role of common knowledge.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 February 2018

• Supplementary materials

How does media influence beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors? While many scholars have studied the effect of media on social and political outcomes, we know surprisingly little about the channels through which this effect operates. I argue that two mechanisms can account for its impact. Media provides new information that persuades individuals to accept it (individual channel), but also, media informs listeners about what others learn, thus facilitating coordination (social channel). Combining a field experiment with a plausibly natural experiment in Mexico, I disentangle these effects analyzing norms surrounding violence against women. I examine the effect of a radio program when it is transmitted privately versus when it is transmitted publicly. I find no evidence supporting the individual mechanism. The social channel, however, increased rejection of violence against women and increased support for gender equality, but unexpectedly increased pessimism about whether violence would decline in the future.

A central concern across social sciences has been to understand the extent to which mass communication can influence social and political outcomes. Indeed, many scholars have shown that media effects abound and cover a wide area of topics, anywhere from political support and electoral behavior up to the perpetration of violence. However, we know little about the underlying mechanisms behind these effects. That is, how is it that media influence beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors? In particular, how does media influence social norms?

The process underlying media influence can be broadly decomposed into two potential effects: (1) an individual or direct effect, and (2) a social or indirect effect. In the former, media provides information about new norms and persuades individuals to accept them (Bandura Reference Bandura 1986 ; DellaVigna and Gentzkow Reference DellaVigna and Gentzkow 2010 ). In the latter, the information provided also serves as a coordination device. Coordination is needed because one can conceptualize social norms as coordination problems, that is, situations in which each person wants to participate only if others participate as well (Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ; Chwe Reference Chwe 1998 ). As such, the provision of public information can enhance coordination on that norm through the creation of common knowledge (Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ; Chwe Reference Chwe 2001 ).

While the individual mechanism would have an effect regardless of the dissemination method, the social one would be stronger when dissemination has a public component. Hence, I argue that information has a differential effect when it is transmitted individually and privately (e.g., through leaflets) than when it is transmitted through more social or collective outlets (such as mass media or public meetings). That is, how information is provided is important to fully understand the mechanisms behind its influence. Critically, however, media itself has a public component, and media related interventions in the literature have naturally been public. As such, by design, media is able to induce common knowledge precluding the isolation of the social component from the individual one, and thus making the task of fully understanding the microfoundations of media influence a daunting one.

This paper fills this gap by disentangling the extent to which media influence acts through the individual mechanism (via persuasion) versus the extent to which it does so through the social mechanism (via higher-order beliefs). To do so, I combine a plausibly natural experiment with a randomized field experiment, conducted in partnership with the UNESCO. Specifically, I analyze the effects of a norms campaign—a media (audio soap-opera) intervention—on a particular set of values and behaviors, namely attitudes and norms surrounding violence against women.

The issue of violence against women is an important and well-suited case for studying the influence of media. First, violence against women is a global concern. It is a violation of human rights and has extensive pernicious consequences that range from the direct physical and mental harm for women and their children to economic losses at the individual and national level. Second, in past years, development programs aimed at improving women’s economic, political, and social status have attracted substantive attention from researchers and policy-makers alike. A particularly popular type of intervention has been media and social norms marketing campaigns, with a special emphasis on “edutainment” (e.g., Paluck and Green Reference Paluck and Green 2009 ). It is crucial to enhance our understanding of the mechanisms behind these policy interventions in order to improve their design and efficacy. Finally, the case of violence against women lends itself for studying the influence of media on social norms as existing evidence points to the link between them. Jensen and Oster ( Reference Jensen and Oster 2009 ) show that the introduction of cable television in India exposed viewers to new information about the outside world and other ways of life, decreasing the reported acceptability of violence toward women. But this effect could also be explained by the publicity of the media, which can plausibly influence social norms via coordination—that is, influencing perceptions of what others think as desirable, and hence promote the rejection of violence because of the expectation that others will reject it as well.

The intervention manipulated the social context in which individuals were able to receive the program. To do so, the research was conducted in San Bartolomé Quialana, a small rural, indigenous community in Oaxaca, Mexico, during May to June 2013, where I combine (1) a plausible natural experiment on the broadcast’s reach with (2) randomly assigned invitations to listen to the program. San Bartolomé Quialana is broadly representative of rural communities, where violence against women is a serious problem (UNESCO 2012 ). With these elements in mind, an audio soap-opera program designed to challenge norms of gender roles and, in particular, discourage violence against women, was broadcasted via the community loudspeaker. This particular loudspeaker had a special characteristic, however. Topography conditions affected its reach, precluding part of the community from accessing the broadcast. This is important because only the area outside the loudspeaker’s reach provides the leverage to test the individual mechanism. Within this area, households were randomly invited to listen to the program, individually and privately, using an audio CD ( Audio CD treatment). Here, individuals were unaware of others listening to the program, precluding common knowledge creation and coordination, thus isolating the individual effect. On the other hand, the area within the loudspeaker’s reach allows us to test the social mechanism. In this area, the program was broadcasted once such that households were able to listen to it ( Village Loudspeaker treatment). In addition, households were randomly invited to listen to the program at a community meeting type of set-up. That is, they were invited to listen to the same program at the same time, but to do it physically copresent with other members of the community ( Community Meeting treatment). This treatment might facilitate the generation of common knowledge and, importantly, aims to match the invitation component of the Audio CD treatment. Overall, the design created four groups as shown in Table 1 .

Table 1 Groups Created by the Research Design

Measuring norms, attitudes, and behavior with a survey of 340 individuals in 200 households, I find that media influence is driven by social effects rather than individual persuasion. I also find that social interactions such as community meetings are not always necessary conditions for such effects. The evidence suggests that the social channel decreased personal and perceived social acceptance of violence against women and increased support for gender equality roles while also increasing pessimism on whether violence will decline in the future. In contrast, results show that the individual channel had no effect.

A competing explanation is that systematic differences may exist between the areas within and outside the loudspeaker’s reach, which could potentially affect beliefs and behaviors related to violence against women. I argue that this is not the case and show that a battery of individual and household characteristics are balanced between the two areas. Given the small size of the town and the nature of the treatment conditions, another concern is that the design could have been vulnerable to spill-overs. However, as I further discuss below, the experiment was designed to address this issue to the greatest extent possible, and most importantly, the presence of spill-overs would bias against the findings of the paper.

This study joins the growing literature demonstrating that exposure to information provided by mass media can influence a wide range of attitudes and behaviors. This paper contributes to this literature by empirically distinguishing the individual and social effects of media influence. This is important for several reasons. First, it improves our understanding of the mechanisms via which media impacts attitudes and social norms; these estimates help resolve an extant puzzle in the empirical literature on media influence. Second, such estimates are critical for thinking about questions of policy interventions. Third, it also sheds light on the way media interventions may have pernicious or unintended effects.

Norms are important because they are standards of behavior that are based on widely shared beliefs of how individual group members ought to behave in a given situation. As such, these customary rules of behavior coordinate individuals’ interactions with others (Young Reference Young 2008 ), and because of this, they are highly influential in shaping individual behavior, including discrimination and violence against a specific group, such as women. Norms can protect against violence, but they can also support and encourage the use of it. For instance, acceptance of violence is a risk factor for all types of interpersonal violence (Krug et al. Reference Krug, Dahberg, Mercy, Zwi and Lozano 2002 ). Indeed, behavior and attitudes related to violence toward women are shaped and reinforced by social norms in general, and gender stereotypes and expectations within the society in particular. These norms persist within society because of individuals’ preference to conform, given the expectation that others will also conform (Lewis Reference Lewis 1969 ; Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ). That is, participation in such norms and behaviors (or the diffusion of new ones) is a coordination problem. This is because people are motivated to coordinate with one another when there are strategic complementarities: Social approval is only accrued by an individual if a sufficient number of people express their attitudes and behave in a similar way. Conversely, social sanctions can be inflicted on those with different expressed attitudes and behaviors if others do not join them (Coleman Reference Coleman 1990 ). For instance, these sanctions can take the form of shaming, shunning, or any other form of social ostracizing (Paluck and Ball Reference Paluck and Ball 2010 ). Other scholars argue that norms are self-sustaining irrespective of the threat of punishment. Two other mechanisms sustaining norms are (i) negative emotions such as guilt or shame that are triggered when norms have been internalized and (ii) the desire to avoid intrinsic costs that would result from coordination failure (Young Reference Young 2008 ). In short, beliefs about the acceptability of a given behavior, such as violence against women, are a key factor in explaining their occurrence (Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ).

One might object that violence against women might be driven by different forces as it is often a private interaction in the household, and presumably people will not engage in violent acts simply because they think others do. But a person engaging in violence might often think about the overall social context. For instance, whether people who find out about these actions will understand it as a crime, and report it. Bancroft makes this point when discussing the psychology of abusive men as follows: “While a man is on an abusive rampage, verbally or physically, his mind maintains awareness of a number of questions: ‘Am I doing something that other people could find out about, so it could make me look bad? Am I doing anything that could get me in legal trouble?’” ( Reference Bancroft 2003 : 34). Furthermore, even if the physical consequences of domestic violence can be hide publicly, other behaviors surrounding gender inequality, such as early marriage or lack of financial independence, are more visible.

Because of these considerations, numerous policies and programs have embarked on ambitious campaigns to address social issues like violence against women by promoting changes in social norms. Many of these strategies take the form of media-driven information interventions, such as TV or radio soap operas (Paluck and Ball Reference Paluck and Ball 2010 ). These efforts raise fundamental questions about the extent to and the conditions under which media can influence social norms in general, and about the microfoundations of such process in particular. Media influence can be broadly decomposed into two effects: (1) an individual or direct effect, and (2) a social or indirect effect.

Individual Effect

The individual or direct effect of media relies on persuasion . The emphasis is on the persuasive power of the content, which ignites an individual learning process, updating personal values and beliefs (Staub and Pearlman Reference Staub and Pearlman 2009 ; DellaVigna and Gentzkow Reference DellaVigna and Gentzkow 2010 ). This “individual educational process” is in line with arguments put forward by social learning theory, where the educational effect of media works via educational role models (Bandura Reference Bandura 1986 ). These educational role models are able to perform an instructive function, and transmit knowledge, values and behaviors among others.

Social Effect

Media can also have an effect via a social mechanism . Here, media influence is rooted in the fact that it can provide information in a way that enhances coordination on a norm or action through the creation of common knowledge (Chwe Reference Chwe 2001 ) This is because media’s method of delivery is a public one. Information that is known to be publicly available helps individuals to form an understanding of their shared beliefs. Public information not only causes individuals to update their personal beliefs, but also allows them to update their beliefs about how widely these beliefs are shared (Morris and Shin Reference Morris and Shin 2002 ). That is, public information is used to know that others received the information, and that everyone who received the information knows that everybody else that received the information knows this, and so on, creating common knowledge. In this vein, some authors argue that “attempts to change public behaviors by changing private attitudes will not be effective unless some effort is also made to bridge the boundary between the public and the private” (Miller, Monin and Prentice Reference Miller, Monin and Prentice 2000 : 113).

Moreover, a social effect might be present even in the absence of an individual effect. That is, people might adjust their behavior and publicly expressed attitudes, but not necessarily their private beliefs. Such inconsistency between private and public is known as pluralistic ignorance , which describes situations in which most members of a group privately reject group norms, yet they believe that most members accept them (Miller and McFarland Reference Miller and McFarland 1987 ). Such erroneous social inference facilitates a social effect in the absence of an individual effect.

Consequently, I argue that the method of dissemination is a significant driver of individuals’ beliefs (and higher-order beliefs), and consequently, of their behavior. A public transmission of information—vis-à-vis a private one—facilitates the creation of common knowledge, thus increasing its influence on social norms. Footnote 1 This is the main hypothesis of this paper:

Hypothesis 1: (Common Knowledge). The effect of information on attitudes and norms is greater when the method of delivery is public.

A public method of dissemination helps bring about, but by no means guarantees, common knowledge, and coordinated action (Chwe Reference Chwe 1998 ). Individuals might not know with certainty that others received the information, and thus everyone who received such information might not know with certainty that everybody else that received the information knows that others received the information, and so on. That is, a public promotion may nonetheless be affected by uncertainty surrounding higher-order beliefs. However, this uncertainty is influenced by the type of social interactions created by the conditions under which norms’ promotion is received. In particular, certainty can be bolstered through face-to-face interactions, such as community meetings (Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ; Chwe Reference Chwe 2001 ).

To address this heterogeneity within the public dissemination of information, I explore the extent to which different levels of uncertainty and potential social interactions moderate the diffusion of norms. Within the common knowledge framework, I analyze whether the publicness of the information is a sufficient condition for media influence and whether face-to-face interactions enhances such influence. That is, I disaggregate Hypothesis 1 into two secondary hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2a: (Public Signal). A public method of delivery is a necessary and sufficient condition for information to influence attitudes and norms (i.e., no social interaction is required).

Hypothesis 2b: (Face-to-Face). A public method of delivery of information with face-to-face interactions enhances the effect of information on attitudes and norms.

To test these hypotheses, I conducted a media intervention in San Bartolomé Quialana, in partnership with the UNESCO Office in Mexico. San Bartolomé Quialana (or simply Quialana) is a small rural, indigenous community located in the state of Oaxaca. Its key features are broadly characteristic of rural municipalities in the rest of Mexico. (Section A1 provides further details.) For the purposes of this paper, an important aspect of Quialana is its cultural homogeneity. For example, as of 2010, out of the 2470 habitants, 2412 were born, and raised in Quialana. This is important because the ability to focus on a single community, holding cultural, and social aspects “constant,” makes it easier to isolate the individual-level informational mechanisms that drive media influence on attitudes and social norms.

The Soap-Opera

The intervention consisted of an audio soap-opera designed to challenge gender role norms and discourage violence against women. Entitled Un nuevo amanecer en Quialana ( A new dawn in Quialana ) it was produced in conjunction with a regional partner non-governmental organization (NGO) and it included four episodes of ~15 minutes each, for a total running time of 57 minutes. The soap-opera was embedded in the local context, featuring common reference points such as “Tlacolula’s market,” as helping the audience to directly relate to the situations portrayed can increase its effect (La Ferrara, Chong and Duryea Reference La Ferrara, Chong and Duryea 2012 ). The plot evolved around a young couple who fell in love and started a family in Quialana. The narrative was developed such that the leading male character gradually transformed from a loving and caring husband to a violent and aggressive figure. Research shows that the male figure should not be displayed as a completely violent character from the outset so that listeners can create a rapport with him and not disregard his behavior as an exception (Singhal et al. Reference Singhal, Cody, Rogers and Sabido 2003 ). Moreover, the language of the script used injunctive norms (Paluck and Ball Reference Paluck and Ball 2010 ). For instance, instead of arguing “beating women is wrong” the soap-opera would say “citizens of Quialana believe that beating women is wrong.” This actually biases against the main hypothesis of this paper because those in the Audio CD treatment are exposed to these injunctive norms. One caveat of the narrative, however, is that it did not contain channel factors to act out these norms. Footnote 2

Un nuevo amanecer en Quialana was broadcasted using the community loudspeaker as a special event: the premier of the first-ever locally produced soap-opera, and the first time the community loudspeaker was used for entertainment purposes.

The research design combines two sources of variation. Specifically, the social context in which people are able to receive the intervention is manipulated by (1) exploiting arguably exogenous variation generated by the topography of the community (i.e., within community variation of “broadcast access”), and (2) randomly inviting households to listen to the program. I further describe each one below.

Natural Experiment: Loudspeaker, Topography, and Sound Check

While Quialana did not have a local radio at the time of the intervention, it did posses a loudspeaker—located on top of the Town Hall, in the center of the community. Before the intervention, the loudspeaker primarily and only sporadically announced sales of small-scale household goods, such as construction materials, like bricks, or other livestock. It was never used for other announcements like news, weather, etc. Perhaps for these reasons the variation in the loudspeaker’s reach (and it’s sharpness) described below came as a surprise to many of our local partners who had previously taken for granted that nearly everyone in the community had access to the occasional announcements.

Leveraging variation in the loudspeaker’s reach, I define two areas within Quialana: (1) the area within the loudspeaker’s reach , and (2) the area outside the loudspeaker’s reach . This within community variation is mainly a product of topography conditions. For example, from one end of the municipality to the other there is an altitude difference of more than 500 ft. More specifically, in some areas, the slopes become high enough that they preclude the sound to travel with clarity. Footnote 3 That is, the source of variation is not a function of distance to the loudspeaker per se , but mainly of altitude difference. That is, two households can be located at the same distance from the loudspeaker and still one of them can fall within the loudspeaker’s reach and not the other. Figure 1 shows the loudspeaker’s reach, which was determined via a sound-check process from the ground (further explained in Section A2).

Fig. 1 San Bartolome Quialana and its loudspeaker’s reach Note : Population (green), households (brown). Red line: loudspeaker’s reach. Red filled circle: Loudspeaker.

A valid concern is that systematic differences may exist between these two areas, which could potentially be correlated with attitudes and norms related to violence against women. One of the advantages of conducting the study within a single, small (slightly more than a mile long) community is precisely being able to leverage the cultural homogeneity and ameliorate concerns about such potential differences. Based on informal and formal discussions with UNESCO personnel, NGO partners, and citizens of Quialana there is no qualitative evidence of sorting into one area or another based on attitudes and behavior related to gender inequality. Qualitative analyses and focus groups organized by UNESCO suggested that violence was widespread equally across the community (UNESCO 2012 ). I complement these on-the-ground accounts with quantitative evidence. Specifically, I rely on data from the 2012 National Housing Inventory to show that a battery of individual and household characteristics are balanced between the two areas (Table A2).

While the focus on a very small community, alongside the qualitative and quantitative evidence strengthens the plausibility of the natural experiment, such interpretation might be threatened if unobservables linked to each of the two areas are also linked with attitudes and behaviors towards women. This should be taken into account when interpreting the results.

Randomization: Audio CD and Community Meeting

Within each area, households were randomly invited to listen to the soap-opera via systematic sampling with a random start, creating the Community Meeting and Audio CD treatments. Here, the experiment was able to hold the content of the media program constant while varying the social context in which it was received. In the area within the loudspeaker’s reach, households were invited to listen to the program in the cafeteria next to the Municipal building (i.e., Community Meeting ). In the area outside the loudspeaker’s reach, households were invited to listen to it in their homes using an audio CD (i.e., Audio CD treatment). The regional partner NGO served as the public face of the treatments, presented as part of an initiative to create a local radio station and as such, there was no mention of UNESCO’s involvement.

To test the individual mechanism, the invitation to listen to the soap-opera (via the audio CD) had to be privately delivered to the household. Here, caution was taken to prevent households from believing that other households were also receiving the program—although as argued before, this would bias against my hypotheses. Enumerators were trained to keep away from sight any material that would signal that other households were also being approached. Further, when reaching out to the household, enumerators emphasized that the audio CD was a pilot program, arguably a one-time opportunity to preview it and provide feedback. While not explicitly saying that the household was the only one selected to receive the audio (to avoid deception), enumerators were trained to hint at that possibility and to frame such opportunity as something very novel, exclusive and private—which might explain the perfect level of compliance. As such, audio CDs were handed out along with a short questionnaire meant as a listening-check device: the enumerator would leave the audio CD and questionnaire sheet and then stop by a couple of hours later to pick up the sheet, and based on this, compliance was 100 percent Footnote 4 . Because of this set-up and based on comments from enumerators, in some cases all family members were present at the time and reportedly all listened to it, but in other cases not every household member was present at the time, and hence did not listen to it.

To test the social mechanism, the design created a comparable treatment group, the Community Meeting , where the invitation to listen the soap-opera matches the invitation component of the Audio CD treatment. Moreover, the Community Meeting provides leverage to explore the effects of public information. By creating a very particular form of social interaction (or at least the knowledge about it), namely the community meeting, this treatment might increase the level of certainty individuals’ have about others receiving the information, and so on. At the same time, this common knowledge mechanism might be confounded by other potential interactions facilitated by the meeting, such as deliberation. To be clear, during the community meeting there was no deliberation (out of respect to other listeners, conversations were not allowed). However, deliberation and exchange of opinions could have occurred after the meeting. Inasmuch these interactions are indeed facilitated by the creation of common knowledge, the design is able to disentangle the social and individual mechanisms of media influence (however, it cannot unbundle face-to-face certainty from deliberation). Finally, people from roughly one in four households invited to the Community Meeting actually went to the cafeteria—that is, complied with the Community Meeting treatment. Anecdotally, during the broadcast people did stop by the Town Hall, just outside the cafeteria where the community meeting was taking place, and listen to the soap-opera (or a least parts of it) from just outside. Other accounts point to the fact that many simply listened to the soap-opera from their own houses.

However, to fully understand the social mechanism, I explore whether the public transmission of information is a sufficient condition to influence norms as well the extent to which the face-to-face interactions can enhance the effect on norms. To potentially address this, the design created a public treatment without imposing such social interactions: households who were able to listen to the broadcast by being within the loudspeaker’s reach but were not in the Group condition constitute the Village Loudspeaker treatment.

Finally, households outside the loudspeaker’s reach who did not receive the audio CD represent the baseline group . These four conditions are summarized in Table 1 .

An unbiased estimation of the mechanisms relies on two dimensions: one, facilitating the creation of common knowledge in the social conditions, and two, precluding it in the individual condition (i.e., no spill-overs). First, for the broadcast to facilitate the creation of common knowledge, it should be the case that people who listens to it know that other people are hearing it too. This is less of a concern in the Community Meeting treatment because information is explicitly given to the household, so they know that others are also receiving the invitation, and so on. However, a person in the Village Loudspeaker treatment might believe that she has heard the broadcast, say because she lives close to the Town Hall or because she believes she has particularly good hearing but that few of her neighbors actually have heard it. I attempt to address this in two ways. First, I include distance to the Town Hall as a control covariate in the empirical analysis. This variable is also a relevant covariate inasmuch it also works as a proxy for population density, which might be a potential confounder with respect to the perpetration of violence. Second, as discussed below, the empirical strategy relies on the estimation of intention-to-treat effects (ITT) precisely because individuals might fail to comply with the treatment—in the case of the Village Loudspeaker , individuals might not listen to the program nor realizing that others are listening to it as well, and so on. As such, it represents a conservative or lower bound estimation.

The second dimension is linked to the notion that those who receive the individual treatment should be unaware of other treatments. Given the small size of the town and the nature the treatment conditions, the design was vulnerable to spill-overs. However, such spill-overs would bias against the main hypothesis of the paper. This is because those in the individual condition might find out that other people were also receiving the soap-opera. Nevertheless, in order to minimize potential spill-overs, invitations for the Community Meeting were given out on a Friday. Both treatments were administered the next day: the Audio CD treatment was conducted on Saturday—starting early in the morning, and the Village Loudspeaker and Community Meeting broadcast was also implemented on Saturday, during the evening.

Similarly, the design faced a trade-off between minimizing these spill-over concerns and maximizing the intensity of the treatment. For the former, the ideal was to minimize the time between the treatments and the survey. For the latter, an alternative was to implement a weekly soap-opera over several weeks or months. Given that the main goal of this study was to analyze the underlying mechanisms of media influence, I prioritized addressing the spill-over concerns at the expense of a limited intensity of the treatment. Nonetheless, experiments where only one day or even 1-hour interventions were implemented have found profound effects (e.g., Ravallion et al. Reference Ravallion, Walle, Dutta and Murgai 2015 ). Given these considerations, the norm intervention was implemented as a one-day event only, and the surveys were administered over the following few days.

Outcome Measurement

The regional partner NGO also served as the public face of the survey, presented as a mean to retrieve the opinion of Quialana citizens to inform an initiative for starting a community radio. Footnote 5 In the survey, three questions measured respondents’ beliefs and estimation of others’ beliefs and actions with respect to violence against women, and three other questions measured attitudes and individual actions related to it. Hence, I evaluate six outcomes of interest, which I describe in detail below.

The first dependent variable is a measure of Personal beliefs aimed at capturing the extent to which people believe and are willing to state that violence against women is a recurring problem in the community. The question asked was “Do you think that violence against women is something that happens here in Quialana?” and it was coded from 1 (“No, this never happens here in Quialana”) to 5 (“This happens too much in Quialana”). Given the qualitative evidence that violence is pervasive in Quialana (UNESCO 2012 ). This item was designed not to capture such factual scenario, but instead the respondent’s personal beliefs about the desirability of (and hence, willingness to expose) certain actions. In other words, the intuition behind this question is to capture the shift from a perception where “husbands are never violent to their wives—they might engage in some aggressive behavior but that is not violence” to a situation in which “that” type of behavior is recognized as violence, and moreover, it is socially appropriate to judge it as serious problem.

The second variable of interest captures the Perceived social rejection . That is, the extent to which an individual believes that the community believes violence is a problem. The question was “Do you think that that the community, the neighbors, and other families see violence against women as a serious problem here in Quialana?” with responses coded from 1 (“No, they do not see it as a problem at all”) to 4 (“They see it as a serious problem that needs to change”). As in the previous question, this item aims to measure the shift in norm perception from a norm where violence is tolerated (e.g., the community experiences violence but sees it a routine and excusable) to a norm where violence is rejected.

The third variable, Expectations about the future , measures individual expectations that this type of violence will decline in the future. The question was “Do you think the next generation of Quialana males …?” with answers being coded from 1 (“Will abuse women more”) to 4 (“Will never abuse women”). That is, higher values represent more optimistic views about the future.

While these three measures are able to retrieve individuals’ perception about norms surrounding violence against women, they do not directly measure individual attitudes, beliefs, nor actions regarding gender roles or domestic violence. Outcomes four through six address this, including a behavioral outcome embedded in the survey.

The fourth outcome, Value Transmission , measures the extent to which the respondent would educate a child with gender equality values. This captures the parents’ decisions concerning which values to inculcate in their children, which are affected by perceived prevailing values in the society (Tabellini Reference Tabellini 2008 ). In particular, it focuses on attitudes toward equality regarding household chores, which is seen by many as one of the key challenges for achieving gender equality (World Bank 2012 ). The question was “Would you educate your child so that domestic chores, such as doing laundry and cooking, are as much a responsibility of the men as they are of the women?,” with the answer being coded 1 if the respondent supports this type of education, 0 otherwise.

The fifth variable captures the individual Reaction to an episode of violence . The question was “If you see or hear a neighbor’s wife being beaten by her husband, what would you do?.” Responses are collapsed into a binary variable in the following way: Reaction to violence takes a value of 1 if the respondents answers that they would interrupt the couple so to stop the violence and/or call the police so they intervene, and is coded 0 if the answer implies that they would not take any action at the moment. Footnote 6

The sixth variable retrieves a behavioral outcome. Survey respondents were asked if they would sign a petition to support the creation of a violence against women support group: the variable Petition signature is coded 1 if they signed the petition, 0 otherwise.

To account for multiple testing I also analyze an Index variable created using standardized inverse-covariance-weighted (ICW) averages of the previous variables. The scale of the resulting index is in control group standard deviations, and higher values can be interpreted as higher levels of rejection and perceived rejection of violence against women and increased support for gender equality.

Three key covariates were collected, namely gender, age, and education. A total of 200 households were surveyed; this represents about one in every three households in Quialana. When available, both the male and female heads of the households were surveyed. This generated a maximum of 340 observations. Table A8 shows descriptive statistics and Section A4 shows randomization checks.

The empirical strategy relies on estimating ITT effects. In this particular set-up, however, the invitation to the Community Meeting (i.e., the assignment to treatment) matches the theoretical motivation behind the treatment itself. That is, the invitation provides specific information about how the soap-opera is going to be disseminated (i.e., there will be a broadcast and an event where people are able to receive the program together), thus facilitating the creation of common knowledge. This also has implications for estimating local average treatment effects (LATE) as it may be read as a violation of the exclusion restriction—this precludes an unbiased estimation of the LATE, providing further reasons to focusing on the ITT estimation.

I conduct the analysis using ordinary least squares, with two empirical strategies, namely (1) Community Meeting versus Audio CD and (2) all four treatment conditions. Footnote 7

Social and Individual Mechanisms: Community Meeting Versus Audio CD

The first empirical strategy focuses on testing the Community Meeting and Audio CD treatments against each other, as follows:

The coefficient of interest in Equation 1 is α ; it captures the social mechanism underlying norms diffusion. Hypothesis 1 predicts α >0. Nonetheless, I test it with a two-sided test.

All Treatment Conditions: Full Sample

The estimates of the Community Meeting are able to isolate the social effects induced by common knowledge. However, they might be influenced by the increased certainty created by the face-to-face interaction, and might potentially be confounded by other social interactions—facilitated by the community meeting—such as deliberation. To address this and understand the extent to which a public method of delivery is a sufficient condition to influence norms, I rely on the full sample, as follows:

where Y i , h represents the outcomes (continuous variables are expressed in standard deviations of the distribution of responses in the baseline condition). The vector of controls, Community Meeting and Audio CD are defined as before. VillageLoudspeaker is an indicator for whether a household is within the loudspeaker’s reach but was not invited to the meeting. Finally, those living in the individual area without treatment represent the baseline category .

In Equation 2, the coefficients of interest are α , β , and γ . They measure the effect of the intervention and, by design, can shed light on the different potential mechanisms. Here, Hypothesis 1 predicts α > β and γ > β , and more specifically, Hypothesis 2a predicts γ >0 while Hypothesis 2b predicts α >0 with α > γ .

Community Meeting Versus Audio CD

Table 2 displays the results for each outcome of interest using two different specifications. The first one displays a specification using only the Community Meeting indicator (i.e., α ), while the second one includes the vector of control covariates.

Table 2 Community Meeting Versus Audio CD

Note : Standard errors clustered at the household level in parentheses.

Covariates: age, female, education, distance.

ICW=inverse-covariance-weighted.

+ p<0.10, *p<0.05, **p<0.01.

Results regarding to the influence on personal beliefs suggest that those invited to the community meeting were more likely than those invited to the Audio CD to state that violence against women is a recurring problem in Quialana. The parameter estimate gains precision when introducing controls but remains stable ranging from 0.33 to 0.35 SD relative to the Audio CD condition (p-value=0.065 and p-value=0.052, respectively).

When looking at the perceived social rejection, the evidence points in the same direction, with stable (0.66 and 0.65) and precise estimates.

The community meeting effects on expectations about the future are negative, very stable (−0.48 and −0.42) and statistically significant at conventional levels, suggesting that those invited to the meeting became more pessimistic about the decrease of violence in the future. This arguably perverse effect could be explained by several factors. One explanation might be that, while the community meeting induced coordination around a new injunctive norm (i.e., people in Quialana should reject violence) it also raised awareness and facilitated coordination around a more subtle descriptive norm, namely that violent behavior is prevalent in the community. This more precise belief about the current situation of the community, coupled with the fact that the soap-opera did not offer any channel factors to act upon it, might have induced pessimistic expectations for the future extent of violence. Another explanation is that, as a result of the new common knowledge, individuals may foresee an increase opposition to violence against women, which in turn may potentially lead to a backlash effect. For instance, more women may speak out and oppose violence, creating a more violent response from a subset of men. While the data does not allow me rule out or pin down a particular explanation, it nonetheless shows that this effect is driven by a social mechanism.

The analyses of individual actions also support the social mechanism. Those invited to the community meeting were 16 percentage points more likely (Model 8) than those invited to the Audio CD to say they would educate their children on gender equality values, 20 percentage points more likely to react to a violent event (Model 10), and 20 percentage points more likely to sign the petition (Model 12).

The ICW Index analysis confirm these results. Subjects invited to the community meeting have an index of responses 0.45 SD higher than those invited to the Audio CD.

To address concerns about the plausibility of the natural experiment, Table A11 replicates the analysis restricting the sample to households within 300 m of the Town Hall, finding similar results.

The overall evidence is clear. Media influence, captured by changes in beliefs, attitudes, and behavior, is primarily driven by a social channel. However, creating common knowledge might also facilitate a more precise belief of the status quo, thus setting negative expectations about future change, as suggested by the evidence on beliefs about the future prevalence of violence.

All Treatment Conditions

Table 3 displays the results for the full sample, without and with controls.

Table 3 All treatment conditions.

The analyses on personal and perceived social rejection show that the informational effects on beliefs and norms are driven entirely by the social mechanisms. When analyzing the expectations about the future, the estimated parameters for social treatments are similar in size, ranging from 0.20 to 0.24, and once again showing a negative sign. In contrast, the Audio CD parameters are positive but far from statistically significant.

These first set of results support both the community meeting and Village Loudspeaker treatments. While the analyses of individual attitudes and actions also support the social mechanism, the evidence is stronger for the community meeting—supporting Hypothesis 2b. A similar pattern emerges when analyzing the ICW Index.

Additionally, I estimated several F -test of inequality of coefficients. When comparing either one of the social conditions to the Audio CD ( β ), they tend to show a statistically significant difference at conventional levels, supporting Hypothesis 1. When pushing further the analysis of the social mechanism, the evidence shows that publicness in and of itself can be a sufficient condition to diffuse norms, in favor of Hypothesis 2a. Nonetheless, some of the evidence also suggests that face-to-face interactions can indeed enhance such effect, providing some support for Hypothesis 2b.

As before, I replicate the analysis by analyzing households within 300 m from the Town Hall, finding the same results (Table A12).

Overall, these findings again suggest that social mechanisms are the main drivers behind media influence on attitudes and norms.

A valid concern when interpreting the results is the extent to which they represent a one-off case in a unique setting. As noted before, in many aspects, Quialana is similar to many other municipalities in Mexico as a community with high levels of media consumption and issues with gender inequality and violence against women. Similarly, as a large and diverse society aiming to empower women so to overcome social challenges, Mexico has much in common with other developing and even developed countries. (See Section A6 for a more detailed discussion.) Yet, to what extent are the results from this study externally valid in the sense that they generalize beyond Quialana? While there are numerous variations in context or treatment design that could change the estimates presented here, the results nonetheless speak to a plausibly phenomenon; the notion that public information, via common knowledge and coordination, can induce differences in norms and behavior is often stated as a general proposition instead of stated as applying to a particular context (Chwe Reference Chwe 2001 ).

Three particular results merit further exploration. First, the negative results on expectations about the future was arguably surprising. Further understanding the conditions under which these type of backlashes occur and can be precluded (e.g., emphasizing channel factors ) is theoretically and policy relevant. Second, the mixed results on the Village Loudspeaker point to the need for more inquiry into the conditions under which public information is a sufficient condition to influence norms and the conditions under which securing common knowledge via social interactions is actually necessary. Third, the Audio CD results suggest that private persuasion in this context was ineffective. From the point of view where social norms are deeply embedded in a community, this result is arguably not surprising precisely because it does not have such link with the community. However, it might also be specific to the issue at hand—perhaps, in less sensitive issue areas, where social pressures might carry relative less weight, individual persuasion might be more effective.

Finally, there are potential concerns about whether the changes in reported attitudes, represent changes in behaviors, or just in reporting. Despite the behavioral evidence on the petition signature , one may be still concerned that public treatments only change what respondents think other people want to hear and see about the acceptability of violence, but does not actually change the incidence of abuse. Without directly observing people in their homes, however, it is difficult to conclusively separate changes in reporting from changes in behavior. However, if media interventions only change what is reported, it still represents social norms change and progress. Changing social norms is a necessary (Jensen and Oster Reference Jensen and Oster 2009 ) and can be sufficient step toward changing the desired outcomes (Mackie Reference Mackie 1996 ).

It is well know that exposure to information provided by the media outlets can influence a wide range of attitudes and behavior. However, less is known about the specific mechanisms behind such influence. Two broad mechanisms can account for such effects, namely an individual mechanism based on persuasion and a social mechanism based on higher-order beliefs and coordination. This paper examines these mechanisms and disentangles their effects at the individual level, studying attitudes, and norms toward violence against women.

The evidence presented here shows a very consistent story: media influence on attitudes and social norms is driven mainly by social effects rather than individual persuasion. First, I show that a public method of delivery was able to decrease personal and perceived social acceptance of violence against women and increased support for gender equality roles, whereas a private delivery had no discernible effects. I also show that public information is no panacea as it also increased pessimism on whether violence will decline in the future. Second, I present evidence that a pure public method of delivery (i.e., without social interactions) can be a necessary and sufficient condition to influence attitudes and norms.

Overall, further understanding the interaction between individual beliefs and different types and sources of information can shed light on the social mechanism purported here.

Eric Arias, Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Niehaus Center for Globalization and Governance, Princeton University, 432 Robertson Hall, Princeton, NJ 08544 ( [email protected] ). This research was carried out as part of a UNESCO Mexico program. the author especially thanks Samira Nikaein at the UNESCO Office in Mexico, Michael Gilligan and Cyrus Samii for their help and support. The author also thanks Michaël Aklin, Karisa Cloward, Livio Di Lonardo, Pat Egan, Jessica Gottlieb, Macartan Humphreys, Malte Lierl, Sera Linardi, Alan Potter, Peter Rosendorff, Shanker Satyanath, David Stasavage, Scott Tyson, participants at ISPS-Yale, WESSI-NYU Abu Dhabi, APSA, MPSA and PEIO for their suggestions and comments. All errors and interpretations are the author’s alone and do not necessarily represent those of UNESCO. To view supplementary material for this article, please visit https://dx.doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2018.1

1 Arguably, “strong” and “weak” hypotheses can be derived. The strong hypothesis would imply that only by increasing the publicness of the information above a certain threshold one should expect an effect, that is, a “tipping-point” argument (Finnemore and Sikkink Reference Finnemore and Sikkink 1998 ). The weak version would postulate that by increasing publicness one is able to increase the effect. Differentiating between these two is beyond the scope of this paper. See also Gottlieb ( Reference Gottlieb 2015 ).

2 Channel factors are small but critical factors that facilitate or create barriers for behavior, for example, the promotion of a telephone hotline number that provides information and can refer callers to service providers (Singhal et al. Reference Singhal, Cody, Rogers and Sabido 2003 ).

3 For examples, see Figures A2 and A3.

4 Almost all households played the audio CD on their own stereo systems, and when they did not have one, enumerators would offer to lend “their personal” portable CD player. The questionnaire consisted on rating the soap-opera, asking the name of the character with whom they identified the most, and providing space for comments.

5 Surveys were collected at the respondents’ households from June 3 to June 5.

6 Answers that take the value of 1 are of the type “call the police” and/or “interrupt them to stop it,” while answers coded 0 are “do nothing, because it’s a private matter between husband and wife” or “do nothing at the moment, but ask what happened later.”

7 Results using logistic models are substantially the same (see Online Appendix).

Arias supplementary material

Online Appendix

Arias Dataset

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Mass Communication, Media, and Culture - An Introduction to Mass Communication

(32 reviews)

Copyright Year: 2016

ISBN 13: 9781946135261

Publisher: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jenny Dean, Associate Professor, Texas Wesleyan University on 2/27/24

This book is pretty comprehensive, but it is getting old in the media world where things are changing at a great pace. The basic text is good, but needs supplementary materials to truly keep pace with technology today. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

This book is pretty comprehensive, but it is getting old in the media world where things are changing at a great pace. The basic text is good, but needs supplementary materials to truly keep pace with technology today.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

I am sure the book was accurate when it was published, but the world keeps changing, and it isn't as current as it needs to be. But, it still isn't bad for a free book to access.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

Once again, same issue. The book is almost seven years old and hasn't been updated. The issue is that the examples and illustrations are getting to be a bit dated. I suspect that there aren't any updates of this book planned, which is unfortunate. If updated, this would be a fantastic read for students.

Clarity rating: 5

It is simple to read and is easily accessible. It meets the needs of a young college student.

Consistency rating: 5

Yes, the textbook is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Modularity rating: 5

It is well-subdivided and easy to access. Good use of subheadlines. It is a smooth read, and easy to find information through headers, subheads, headlines, and blocks of type.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Everything is presented in a clear and concise manner.

Interface rating: 5

This textbook comes in a wide variety of formats and can be accessed by almost everyone through one method or another. It was super easy to access.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The text is clean and clear of errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I don't think this book is as inclusive as the typical book written today. This is simply because times have changed, and the need for inclusive and culturally sensitive books has escalated exponentially from the time this book was written. It needs more culturally relevant examples. I wouldn't say that anything in the book is culturally insensitive or offensive, but it isn't as diversified as it needs to be.

This is an excellent book for an introduction to mass communication or an introduction to media and society course. It covers all the basics that I would expect to cover. It just needs some updating which can be done through supplementary materials.

Reviewed by Ryan Stoldt, Assistant Professor, Drake University on 12/15/22

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication thoughtfully walks readers through popular media and connects these media to questions about culture as a way of life. The book undoubtedly is comprehensive in its scope of... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication thoughtfully walks readers through popular media and connects these media to questions about culture as a way of life. The book undoubtedly is comprehensive in its scope of American media but largely fails to consider how media and culture relate in more global settings. The book occasionally references conversations about global media, such as the differences between globalization and cultural imperialism approaches, but is limited in its engagement. As media have become more transnational their reach and scope (due to technological access, business models, and more), the American focus makes the text feel limited in its ability to explain the relationship between media and culture more broadly.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The text is accurate although it has limited engagement in some of the topics it explores. As such, this would be a good introductory text but would need to be paired with additional resources to dive into many topics in the book with both accuracy and nuance.

Many of the sections of the book are relevant, as the book often contextualizes media through a historical lens. However, the more current sections of the book (such as the section on the Internet and social media) have become outdated quickly. These, once again, would be useful starting places for classroom conversation about the topic but would need to be paired with more current readings to hold a deeper conversation about social media and society today.

Some terms could be further explained, but the text is overall well written and easy to understand.

Consistency rating: 4

The book pulls from multiple approaches to researching and discussing media and culture. The introductory chapter draws more heavily from critical media studies in its conceptualizations of the relationship between media and culture. The media effects chapters draw more heavily from more social scientific approaches to studying media. The author does a nice job weaving these approaches into a consistent conversation about media, but different approaches to studying media could be more forwardly discussed within the text.

The author has made the text extremely easy to use modularly. Chapters are self-contained, and readers could easily select sections of the book to read without losing clarity.

The book employs consistent organization across the subjects discussed. Each chapter follows a similar organizational structure as well.

Interface rating: 4

Because the text is so modular, the text does not flow easily when read on the publisher's website. Yet, downloading the text also raises some issues because of strange formatting around images.

I have not seen any grammatical errors.

As stated previously, the book is extremely biased in its international representation, primarily promoting Americans' engagements with media. The book could go further in being more representative of different American cultures, but it is far from culturally insensitive.

Understanding Media and Culture would be an extremely useful introductory text for a class focusing on American media and society. A more global perspective would require significant engagement with other texts, however.

Reviewed by David Fontenot, Assistant Professor, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 11/15/22

The text comprehensively covers forms of media used for mass communication and includes issues towards emerging forms of mass communication. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The text comprehensively covers forms of media used for mass communication and includes issues towards emerging forms of mass communication.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

In some places there is nuance missing, where I feel brief elaboration would yield significantly clearer comprehension without bias or misleading associations about media's influence on behavior.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

Still relevant and up-to-date with a valuable emphasis on issues related to internet mass media.

Very readable, with little jargon. Definitions are presented clearly and used in subsequent discussions.

Internal consistency is strong within the chapters.

Modularity rating: 4

The majority of chapters can be taken independently, with only a few larger structural pieces that lay the foundation for other sections.

The book takes an historical approach to media, which lends itself to a logical progression of topics. I might suggest, however, that for most students the material that is most accessible to their daily lives comes last with such an approach.

Interface rating: 3

The downloaded file has some very awkward spots where images seem clipped or on separate pages than the content that reference them. I only viewed this textbook in the online downloaded PDF format.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

No grammatical errors have jumped out at me in sections read so far.

There are quite a few opportunities to include discissions of media and culture that don't seem so anglo-centric but they are passed up.

I am using this textbook as the basis for an interdisciplinary class on media and the criminal justice system, and in that regard I think it will serve very well for an introductory level textbook. It provides a concrete set of core ideas that I can build off of by creating tailored content to my students' needs.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Johnson-Young, Assistant Professor, University of Mary Washington on 7/1/22

Appropriately comprehensive. Having some more up-to-date citations, particularly in the media effects theories criticisms section (with some more explanations) would be beneficial--perhaps supplementing with some ways these have been updated would... read more

Appropriately comprehensive. Having some more up-to-date citations, particularly in the media effects theories criticisms section (with some more explanations) would be beneficial--perhaps supplementing with some ways these have been updated would help a class.

Overall, content is clear and accurate.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

Mass media may always need updating, but this is appropriate and up-to-date.

Clarity rating: 4

Is an accessible text in terms of clarity and provides necessary definitions throughout in order to provide the reader with an understanding of the terminologies.

Text introduces terms and frameworks and uses them consistently throughout.

Small, easy to read blocks of text--could easily be used in a variety of courses and be reorganized for a particular course.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

Topics presented clearly and in an order that makes sense.

Easy to read through and images clear and displaying readily. It would help if there was a way to move forward without having to click on the table of contents, particularly in the online format.

No errors that stick out.

While appropriately comprehensive for an intro text, more examples and/or acknowledgment of who has been left out and those impacts could be helpful in the social values or culture discussions.

Overall, this is a great text and one that could be used in full for a course or in sections to supplement other communication/media studies courses!

Reviewed by David Baird, Professor of Communication, Anderson University on 4/18/22

I don’t know if any intro textbook can cover “all areas and ideas,” but this text was adequate to the task—basically on par with any other textbook in this space. I didn’t see a glossary in the chapters or an index at the back of the book. On the... read more

I don’t know if any intro textbook can cover “all areas and ideas,” but this text was adequate to the task—basically on par with any other textbook in this space. I didn’t see a glossary in the chapters or an index at the back of the book. On the other hand, the text is searchable, so the lack of an index is not a major problem as far as I’m concerned.

When the text was published, it would have been considered “accurate.” The content was competently conceptualized, well written and reflective of the standard approach to this kind of material. I didn’t notice any egregious errors of content aside from the fact that the book was published some years ago is no longer very current.

The primary weakness of the book is that it was published more than a decade ago and hasn’t been updated for a while. The text is relevant to the focus of the course itself, but the examples and illustrations are dated. For example, the book uses a graphic from the presidential election of 2008 in a treatment of politics, and “Who Wants to be a Millionaire?” is an example of current television programming.

I conducted a text search that tabulated the number of references to the following years, and these were the results: 2010: 588 2011: 49 2012: 8 2013: 4 2014: 0 2015: 2 2016: 0 2017: 0 2018: 1 2019: 1 2020: 0 2021: 1 2022: 1

The references to the more-recent years tended to crop up in forward-looking statements such as this one: “With e-book sales expected to triple by 2015, it’s hard to say what such a quickly growing industry will look like in the future.”

The second part of the question referred to the implementation of updates. I doubt that any updates are planned.

The text is well written and meets the usual standards for editorial quality.

The framework and "voice" are internally consistent.

The chapter structure provides the most obvious division of the text into accessible units. Each chapter also has well-defined subsections. Here’s an example from one chapter, with page numbers removed:

• Chapter 13: Economics of Mass Media

Economics of Mass Media Characteristics of Media Industries The Internet’s Effects on Media Economies Digital Divide in a Global Economy Information Economy Globalization of Media Cultural Imperialism

This aspect of the text makes sense and is largely consistent with similar textbooks in this area.

The text is available in these formats: online, ebook, ODF, PDF and XML. I downloaded the PDF for purposes of my review. The formatting was clean and easy to work with. I didn’t notice any problems that made access challenging.

I can’t say with certainty that a grammatical error or typo can’t be found in the textbook, but as I noted above, the writing is strong. I’ve seen much worse.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The text seems to be around a dozen years old now, so it doesn’t include discussion of some of the high-profile perspectives that have surfaced in more recent years related to race, ethnicity, sexuality, etc. However, the book does discuss examples of media issues “inclusive of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds,” and this material is presented with sensitivity and respect.

This is a reasonably good resource for basic, intro-level definitions and explanations of some of the major concepts, issues and theories in the “Mass Communication” or “Media and Society” course, including:

• functions of the media • gatekeeping • media literacy • media effects • propaganda • agenda setting • uses and gratifications

The textbook also offers the standard chapters on the various media—books, newspapers, magazines, radio, television, etc. These chapters contextualize the various media with standard accounts of their historical development. My feeling is that much of the historical background presented in this book is more or less interchangeable with the material in newer textbooks.

However, the media industries have changed dramatically since the textbook was written, so all of the last decade’s innovations, developments and controversies are entirely missing. Of course, even a “new” textbook is going to be somewhat dated upon publication because of the book’s production timeline and the way that things change so quickly in the media industries—but a book published in 2021 or 2022 would be far more up-to-date than the book under review here.

The bottom line for me is that if one of an instructor’s highest priorities is to provide a free or low-cost textbook for students, this book could work with respect to the historical material—but it would have to be supplemented with carefully selected material from other sources such as trade publications, industry blogs and news organizations.

Reviewed by Kevin Curran, Clinical Assistant Professor, Loyola Marymount University on 3/21/22

This is one of the most comprehensive media studies books I’ve read. It attacks each media platform separately and with sufficient depth. That is followed by economics, ethics, government/law, and future predictions. Takeaways attend of each... read more

This is one of the most comprehensive media studies books I’ve read. It attacks each media platform separately and with sufficient depth. That is followed by economics, ethics, government/law, and future predictions.

Takeaways attend of each section will aid comprehension. Exercises at end of sections could be jumping off point for discussions or assignments. Chapters end with review and critical thinking connections plus career guidance.

The Chapter 2 rundown on both sides of media theories and summary of research methods was well-done.

Everything about this tome is good, except for its dating.

The book is well-researched and provides valuable, although often dated, information. The author used a variety of sources, effective illustrations, and applicable examples to support the points in the book.

It can be very hard to keep up with constant changes in the mass media industry. This book was reissued in 2016, but it has not been revised since the original copyright in 2010. The dated references start on page 2 when it speaks of Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey as existing, when that circus ceased in 2017. The medium-by-medium exploration is well done, although the passage of time affects the end of each chapter.

Adoption of the book as-is will mean developing an update lesson for each chapter. For example, while smartphones are mentioned, they had not achieved saturation status at the time this volume was published.

The points are presented clearly. References with hyperlinks are available at the end of each section for those who still have questions or want more information. However, it is possible that because of the age of the book, some of those links may no longer be available.

The media chapters each follow a similar pattern in writing and order.

This will break up easily. The first chapter gives a good taste of what is to come. The book provides a comprehensive look at the history and influence of each medium individually. The last group of chapters necessarily contains many flashbacks to the medium sections.

It follows a logical pattern from the introduction to the individual medium chapters to the “big picture” chapters. That does require signposting between the two sets of chapters that some might find frustrating.

Interface rating: 2

The book is a standard PDF with links. The scan could have been better, as there is a lot of white space and illustrations are inconsistently sized. Users hoping for lots of interactivity are going to be disappointed.

The book is well edited. It is hard to find errors in writing mechanics.

The authors took a broad view of the mass media world. The music chapter was very well done.

Reviewed by Lisa Bradshaw, Affiliate Faculty, Metropolitan State University of Denver on 11/26/21

This textbook, downloaded as a 695-page PDF, contains 16 chapters and covers a variety of media formats, how they evolved, and how they are created and used, as well as issues related to media impact on society and culture. It is quite... read more

This textbook, downloaded as a 695-page PDF, contains 16 chapters and covers a variety of media formats, how they evolved, and how they are created and used, as well as issues related to media impact on society and culture. It is quite comprehensive in its coverage of media for the time of its writing (copyright year 2016, “adapted from a work originally produced in 2010”).

Content seems accurate for its time, but as technology and media have evolved, it omits current references and examples that did not exist when it was written. There does not seem to be bias and a wide variety of cultural references are used.

As mentioned previously, this textbook’s copyright year was 2016, and it was adapted from a 2010 work. It’s not clear how much of the content was updated between 2010 and 2016, but based on the dates in citations and references, the last update appears to have been in 2011. Even if it had been updated for the year 2016, much of the information is still out-of-date.

There is really no way to write a textbook about media that would not be at least partially out of date in a short time. This text’s background and history of the evolution of the various media forms it covers is still accurate, but there is much about the media landscape that has changed since 2010–2016.

Due to the textbook’s age, references to media platforms and formats such as MySpace, Napster, and CDs seem outdated for today’s media market. The textbook refers to previous political figures, and its omission of more recent ones (who were not on the political landscape at the time of writing) makes it seem out-of-date. To adapt it for modern times, these references need to be updated with fresh examples.

The writing level is relatively high. A spot check of the readability level of several passages of text returned scores of difficult to read, and reading level 11-12 grade to college level. The author does a good job of explaining technical terminology and how different media work. If adapting the text for students with a lower level of reading, some of the terminology might need to be revised or explained more thoroughly.

The text is consistent in its chapter structure and writing style. The order of topics makes sense in that chapters are mostly structured by media type, with beginning and end sections to introduce each respective media type in general, and conclude with a look to the future.

If adapting and keeping the same structure (intro to media in general, coverage of different media types in their own chapters, and main issues related to media), this 695-page textbook could be condensed by eliminating some of the detail in each chapter. There are a number of self-referential sentences that might need to be removed. If adapting the text to a more specific subject, the instructor would need to go through the text and pick out specific points relevant to that subject.

Each chapter introduces the respective media type and concludes with a summary that reflects on the future of that type and how it might evolve further. The chapters overall follow the same structure for consistency: overview, history, the media in popular culture, current trends, and potential influence of new technologies, with end-of-chapter Key Takeaways, Exercises, Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, Career Connection, and References.

The text is well written and logically structured and sequenced. Despite its length, it’s easy to find information, as it’s ordered by chapters that address each media type and major issues related to media, and each chapter has a parallel structure with the others, all following mostly the same pattern.

I did not notice grammatical errors. The text is clearly and accurately written, and appears to have been thoroughly copyedited and proofread.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I did not notice cultural insensitivity in the text. A wide variety of cultural references are used. Examples from around the world and from many different cultures are included, including discussions of digital divide and inequity issues related to media access in disadvantaged populations.

Reviewed by Adria Goldman, Assistant Professor of Communication, University of Mary Washington on 7/11/21

The text nicely breaks down different forms of mass communication. The text provides some historical background and discussion of theory to provide context for discussing mass media, which is all useful in helping students understand media and... read more

The text nicely breaks down different forms of mass communication. The text provides some historical background and discussion of theory to provide context for discussing mass media, which is all useful in helping students understand media and communication. There is not much discussion about the cultural significance of media. If using the text in a course, supplemental readings on the significance of culture and diversity, the importance of media representation, and media influence on an individual level (ex: impact on identity), would be especially helpful for a course exploring media and culture. The text does not feature a glossary or index, however the bolding of key concepts throughout the text is helpful in defining key terms.

The content is error-free. More discussion on culture would provide a more accurate account of mass communication and its significance.

The subject is very relevant and the book features topics important for a discussion on mass communication. As mentioned in other parts of this review, there is not much diversity featured throughout the text, which can impact the relevancy of the material to audiences and impacts the relevancy of the content in discussions on mass media and society. Updates would be straightforward to implement.

The text is clear and easy to follow.

The text is consistent in its use of terms and its framework. Since the book title mentions a focus on culture, an interesting add-on would be to have each section (on a specific type of mass communication) feature a discussion of culture and its significance.

The text's modularity is useful. It looks like it would be easy for students to follow and for instructors to re-structure in order to fit their course design.

The information follows a logical order, beginning with a discussion on the significance of mass communication and then going into each type.

No issues with interface noted.

No glaring grammatical issues noted.

Cultural Relevance rating: 2

There is not much focus on the significance of culture. More discussion on the role of race, class, sex, gender, religion and other elements of identity would be helpful in exploring mass communication--past, present, and potential for the future. The text could also use an update in images and examples to include diverse representation and to further communicate the role of culture, diversity, and representation in communication and mass media.

The book provides an understanding of mass communication that would be easy for undergraduate college students to follow. The optional activities would also spark interesting discussion and give students the opportunity to apply concepts. Students using the text would benefit from (1) more discussion on culture's significance in media and communication and (2) more diversity in the images and examples used.

Reviewed by Brandon Galm, Instructor in English/Speech, Cloud County Community College on 5/4/21

One of the strong suits of this particular resource is its comprehensiveness, with topics ranging from specific mass comm mediums to the intersections/impacts of media on culture, politics, and ethics. There's enough here to easily cover a full... read more

One of the strong suits of this particular resource is its comprehensiveness, with topics ranging from specific mass comm mediums to the intersections/impacts of media on culture, politics, and ethics. There's enough here to easily cover a full semester's worth of material and then some.

The content is well-sourced throughout with a list of references at the end of each chapter. The hyperlinks on the references page all seem functional still. Hyperlinks within the chapters themselves--either sending the reader to the reference list or to the articles themselves--would be helpful.

As of this review writing, some of the content is relatively up-to-date. However, with a quickly changing landscape in mass communications and media, certain chapters are becoming out-of-date more quickly than others. The information discussed is more current than most of the information cited. The structure of the book lends itself to easy updating as technologies and culture shift, but whether or not those updates will take place seems unclear with the most recent edition being 5 years old at this point.

All information is presented in a way that is very clear with explanations and examples when further clarification is needed.

For a book covering as many different topics as it does, the overall structure and framework of this textbook is great. Chapter formats stay consistent with clearly stated Objectives at the start and Key Takeaways at the end. Visual examples are provided throughout, and each chapter also includes various questions for students to respond to.

Chapters are broken down into smaller sub-chapters, each with their own sub-headings hyperlinked in the Table of Contents. Each sub-chapter also includes the above-mentioned Objects, Key Takeaways, and questions for students. Chapters and/or sub-chapters could easily be assigned in an order that fits any syllabus schedule and are in no way required to be read in order from Chapter 1 to Chapter 16.

I would like to have seen the book laid out a bit differently, but this is a minor concern because of the overall flexibility of assigning the chapters. The book starts with broad discussions about media and culture, then shifts into specific forms of media (books, games, tv, etc.), then returns to more broad implications of media and culture. Personally, I'd like to see all of those chapters grouped together--with all of the media and culture chapters in one section, and all of the specific forms chapters in another. Again, this is a minor issue because of the overall flexibility of the book.

As mentioned above, hyperlinks--including in the Table of Contents and references--are all functional. I would have liked to have hyperlinks for the references in the text itself, either as a part of the citation or with a hyperlinked superscript number, rather than just in the references page. All images are easily readable and the text itself is easy to read overall.

No grammatical errors that immediately jumped out. Overall seems clear and well-written.

The text provides lots of examples, though most do come from US media. The sections dealing with the intersections between media and culture are similarly US-centric.

Overall, a solid introductory textbook that covers a wide range of topics relevant to mass communications, media, and culture. The text is bordering on out-of-date at this point, but could easily be updated on a chapter-by-chapter basis should the publisher/author wish to do so.

Reviewed by Dong Han, Associate Professor, Southern Illinois University Carbondale on 3/30/21

It covers all important areas and topics regarding media, culture, and society. Different media forms and technologies from printing media to social media all have their own chapters, and academic inquiries like media effects, media economics,... read more

It covers all important areas and topics regarding media, culture, and society. Different media forms and technologies from printing media to social media all have their own chapters, and academic inquiries like media effects, media economics, and media and government also receive due attention. This textbook will meet the expectation of students of all backgrounds while introducing them to theoretical concerns of the research community. Its chapter layout is properly balanced between comprehensiveness and clarity.

Its content is accurate and unbiased. The textbook is written with ample research support to ensure accuracy and credibility. References at the end of each chapter allow readers to track sources of information and to locate further readings.

It is up-to-date in that the major cultural and media issues it identifies remain highly relevant in today’s world. However, since it was first produced in 2010, some more recent occurrences are not part of the discussion. This is not meant to be a criticism but a reminder that an instructor may want to supplement with more recent materials.

It is written with clear, straight-forward language well-suited an introductory textbook. The chapter layout, as mentioned earlier, is easy to access.

The book is consistent in terms of terminologies and its historical approach to media growth and transformation.

Each chapter is divided in sections, and sections in turn have various reading modules with different themes. For undergraduates taking an introductory course, this textbook will work well.

The topics are presented in an easy-to-access fashion. The textbook starts with a general overview of media and culture and a persistent scholarly concern with the media: media effects. Then it moves through different media in alignment with the chronological order of their appearance in history. The last few chapters focus on important but non-technology-specific topics including advertising and media regulations. For an introductory textbook, it is very accessible to the general student body.

The textbook does not have significant interface issues. Images, charts, and figures all fit well with the text.

There are no grammatical errors.

The textbook has a number of examples of minority cultures and ethnicities. It does not, however, have ample discussions on media and culture phenomena outside of the US, except those that have had significant impact on American culture (e.g., Beatlemania).

All considered, this is a very good textbook to be used in an introductory course. It is comprehensive, easy-to-read, and can help prepare students for future in-depth discussions on media, culture, and society.

Reviewed by Elizabeth Johnson-Young, Assistant Professor, University of Mary Washington on 7/6/20

Comprehensive text regarding mass communication, culture, and effects. The historical perspectives are helpful for understanding, particularly as it goes on to focus in on convergence throughout the text. A more complete glossary or index would be... read more

Comprehensive text regarding mass communication, culture, and effects. The historical perspectives are helpful for understanding, particularly as it goes on to focus in on convergence throughout the text. A more complete glossary or index would be helpful for terms for an introduction text, but key terms are highlighted and defined throughout. Extra examples would help throughout, particularly with theories and research methods.

Accurate, up to date information on history, concepts, and theories.

The information focuses on important historical moments, theories, cultural impacts, and moves to the present with ideas and examples that will likely remain relevant for quite some time.

Clear, easy to read text that would benefit introductory students of mass comm.

Introduces terms and concepts and then utilizes them throughout.

The separation of the larger text into smaller sections is incredibly helpful and makes reading and assignments of readings easy, leading also to the ability to separate into sections that would be appropriate for any course organization.

Organization is logical and easy to follow. Importantly, because of the modularity, it would also be easy to re-organize for one's course.

Navigation works, images clear and detailed.

No glaring grammatical errors.

The examples and images demonstrate diversity in race and also provides examples outside of the United States, which is important. There is some diversity in terms of gender and sexual diversity, more of which would be beneficial and various sections would be appropriate for that inclusion.

This is an excellent and comprehensive text for intro students that includes important historical moments and thorough coverage of main concepts and theories in the field, with a diverse set of moments and examples.

Reviewed by Emily Werschay, Communication Studies Instructor, Minnesota State University System on 10/22/19

Overall, this textbook is quite comprehensive in covering various channels of media, particularly from a historical perspective, and would work well for an introductory course. It features the same focused areas of content that are in my current... read more

Overall, this textbook is quite comprehensive in covering various channels of media, particularly from a historical perspective, and would work well for an introductory course. It features the same focused areas of content that are in my current publisher textbook and incorporates elements of culture as well. It does not provide a glossary or index, which would be helpful, but key terms are in bold.

The text contains accurate research with clearly-cited references that give credibility to the content.

The historical content is well-crafted. The text provides a clear and informative introduction to the history of media and does well with the rise of newspapers, television, and movies. You will not, however, find a reference more recent than 2010, which means any advancements in media and technology in the past decade are not covered. An instructor using this text would have to supplement content on current types of media such as streaming television and music services and the current debate of social media shifting toward news publishing in terms of content delivery. While the text includes culture and political climate of the past, much would need to be supplemented for the last ten years.

The text is professional and well-written. It is well-suited to a college reading level.

The chapter format, writing style, and overall presentation of information are consistent throughout the text. I appreciate the defined learning outcomes and key takeaways pulled out in each chapter.

The text is divided into clear chapters focusing on one medium at a time, much like other publisher texts for mass communication. For example, books, newspapers, magazines, music, radio, movies, and television each get their own chapter. Each chapter begins with clearly defined learning outcomes, and features key takeaways, exercises, assessments, and critical thinking questions at the end, as well as a section on career connections.

The topics are presented in chronological order from the history of mass communication, through the various mediums, and finally to the future of mass communication (though most will find the content particularly about recent and current trends will need to be supplemented as it is outdated).

I didn't find any problems with the interface as it is a standard text that can be viewed as a PDF, but an index would really help navigation. I will say that it's not particularly user-friendly, so I may try integrating the online format chapter-by-chapter into D2L so that I can break it up by modules and add links to make it more interactive with supplemental resources.

Professional, well-written text with no errors.

I don't believe readers will find any of the text culturally insensitive or offensive. The text is focused on U.S. media, however, so some supplemental content may be needed.

This textbook is very comprehensive and will work well for an introductory course. It covers the same focus areas as my publisher text, so I feel comfortable switching to this textbook for my Introduction to Mass Communication course with the awareness that it does not cover the past decade. I will need to provide supplemental information to update examples and cover current topics, but that is generally accepted in this particular field as it is continually changing with advancements in technology.

Reviewed by Bill Bettler, Professor, Hanover College on 3/8/19

This text is comprehensive on several levels. Theoretically, this text echoes the framework employed by Pavlik and McIntosh, which displays sensitivity to convergence. However, this text understands convergence on multiple levels, not just the... read more

This text is comprehensive on several levels. Theoretically, this text echoes the framework employed by Pavlik and McIntosh, which displays sensitivity to convergence. However, this text understands convergence on multiple levels, not just the three employed by P and M. This text is well-researched, with ample citations on a whole host of media topics. Each chapter has multiple ways that it tests the reader, with "Key Takeaways," "Learning Objectives," etc. And finally, the text features chapters on the history and development of key historical media, as well as key emerging media.

Some students find Pavlik and McIntosh a bit too transparent in their Marxist assumptions. While this text certainly introduces Marx-based theories about media, it seems to do a better job of contextualizing them among several other competing perspectives.

Some of the popular culture texts felt a bit dated--for example, opening the "Music" chapter (Chapter 6) with an extended case study about Colbie Caillat. Unfortunately, this is the nature of mass media studies--as soon as books come into print, they are out of date. But I have a hard time imagining my mass communication students being inspired and engaged by a Colbie Caillat case study. I'm not sure what the alternative is; but it seemed worth mentioning. Other examples are much more effective and successful. The historical examples from different types of media are well-chosen, thoroughly explained, and insightful. Also, this text discusses emerging media more successfully than any other texts I have used.

The style of this text is straightforward and scholarly. It seems to strike an effective balance between accessibility and specialized language. For example, key concepts such as "gatekeeper" and "agenda setting theory" are introduced early and applied in several places throughout the text.

Like Pavlik and McIntosh, this text uses the concept of "convergence" to explain several key phenomena in mass communication. Unlike P and M, this text understands "convergence" on more than three levels. Like P and M, this concept becomes the "glue" that holds the various topics and levels of analysis together. As mentioned before, this text is especially effective in that it introduces foundational concepts early on and applies them consistently across succeeding chapters.

On one hand, this text rates highly in "modularity," because I could imagine myself breaking its chapters apart and re-arranging them in a different order than they are presented here. This is in no way meant as a criticism. I routinely have to assign chapters in more conventional texts in a different order. The fact that the technology involved in delivering this text makes it easier to re-arrange is one of its best selling points. The reason I scored this as a "4" is because some of the chapters are quite dense, in terms of volume (not in terms of difficulty). Therefore, I could see students perhaps losing focus to some degree. I might combat this by making further breakdowns and re-arrangements within chapters. This is not a fatal flaw--but it does seem like a practical challenge of using this text.

As mentioned above, some of the chapters are quite dense, in terms of volume. Chapter One is such a chapter, for example. I could easily see Chapter One comprising two or three chapters in another textbook. Consequently, there is a likelihood that students would need some guidance as they read such a dense chapter; and they would likely benefit from cutting the chapter down into smaller, more easily digestible samples. On the other hand, the Key Takeaways, and Learning Objectives, will counteract this tendency for students to be overwhelmed or confused. They are quite helpful, as are the summarizing sections at the ends of each chapter.

I did not encounter any problems with interface. In fact, the illustrations, figures, charts, photographs, etc. are a real strength of this text. They are better than any other text I have seen at creating "symbolic worlds" from different forms of media.

The writing style is professional and free of errors.

This is a genuine concern for mass media texts. Media content is a direct reflection of culture, and today's culture is characterized by a high level of divisiveness. I did not detect any examples or samples that were outwardly offensive or especially controversial. But, perhaps, there is a slight bias toward "the status quo" in the case studies and examples--meaning that many (but certainly not all) of them seem to be "Anglo," Caucasian artists. Looking at the "Music" chapter, for example, some popular culture critics (and students) might lament that Taylor Swift is an exemplar. While this choice is undeniable in terms of the popularity of her recordings and concerts, some might hope for examples that represent stylistic originality, genre-transcending, and progressive ideas (Bruno Mars, Kendrick Lamar, Jay-Z, Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, etc.).

I have been using the same text for seven years (Pavlik and McIntosh). I have decided to adopt Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication. It is simply more thorough in its sweep of history and contextualization of culture, more multi-layered in its theoretical perspectives, and more rich in its examples and insights. This books is recommendable not just as an open source text, but as it compares to any conventional text. Students will benefit greatly from reading this text.

Reviewed by Hsin-Yen Yang, Associate Professor, Fort Hays State University on 11/29/18

Understanding Media and Culture: an Introduction to Mass Communication covers all the important topics in mass communication and media history. It also provides case studies, Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking... read more

Understanding Media and Culture: an Introduction to Mass Communication covers all the important topics in mass communication and media history. It also provides case studies, Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, and Career Connections in every chapter. Although this book does not provide a glossary, the comprehensiveness of the book still makes it a great textbook choice.

While the information was accurate and the discussions on key issues were supported by good references, it was odd to see the questionable formatting and quality of the first reference on page 3: Barnum, P. T.” Answers.com, http://www.answers.com/topic/p-t-barnum. --> First of all, Answers.com is not considered as a credible source by many scholars and the other half of the quotation marks was missing.

The major weakness of this book is the fact that many of the references were outdated. For example, on page 479, the statistics in the section, "Information Access Like Never Before," the cited reports were from 2002 and 2004. When discussing topics such as Net Neutrality, digital service providers, new policies and technologies, the urgency for updated information becomes evident. However, as the author correctly pointed out: "Although different forms of mass media rise and fall in popularity, it is worth noting that despite significant cultural and technological changes, none of the media discussed throughout this text has fallen out of use completely."

The writing in this book is very clear and easy to understand. The colored images, figures and tables should be very helpful in terms of student comprehension and engagement.

The framework and terminology are consistent throughout the book.

Each chapter can be assigned to students as a stand-along reading, and can be used to realign with other subunits should an instructor decide to compile reading within this book or from different sources.

Each chapter follows similar flow/ format: the history, evolution, economics, case studies and social impact of a mass medium, followed by Key Takeaways, Exercises, End-of-Chapter Assessment, Critical Thinking Questions, Career Connections and References. It was easy to navigate the topics and sections in this book.

I downloaded the book as a PDF and had no problem to search or navigate within the file. The book can also be viewed online or in a Kindle reader.

I spotted a few minor formatting or punctuation issues such as the missing quotation marks stated earlier, but no glaring errors as far as I know.

While it mainly focuses on American media and culture, this book contains statistics and cases from many countries (e.g. Figure 11.7), provides many critical thinking exercises and is sensitive towards diverse cultures and backgrounds.

Overall, this is a high-quality textbook and it contains almost all the key issues in today's media studies in spite of the somewhat outdated data and statistics. The strengths of this book are: Excellent historical examples, critical analysis and reflections, clearly defined key issues and in-depth discussions. Even when using the most recent edition of textbooks, I always research for updates and recent cases. This open resource textbook makes an outstanding alternative to those high-priced textbooks.

Reviewed by Hayden Coombs, Assistant Professor, Southern Utah University on 8/2/18

Perhaps the best quality of this text, Understanding Media and Culture is a very comprehensive textbook. I have used this text in my Mass Media &amp; Communication course for two years now. Each chapter focuses on a different type of medium,... read more

Perhaps the best quality of this text, Understanding Media and Culture is a very comprehensive textbook. I have used this text in my Mass Media & Communication course for two years now. Each chapter focuses on a different type of medium, starting with the earliest books and working its way up to the latest technological advancements in mass media. Other beneficial topics include: Media & Culture, Media Effects, Economics of Mass Media, Media Ethics, Media and Government, and the Future of Mass Media. These topics provide a solid base for a 100 or 200-level introductory communication course. They also were written in a way that each chapter provided sufficient material for a week's worth of discussion.

This book was written in a very unbiased manner. It is completely factual, and not much room is left for subjective interpretation. The discussion questions allowed multiple themes and schools of thought to be explored by the students. Because this book is intended for an introductory course, the information is fairly basic and widely-accepted.

My biggest issue with this title was that the latter chapters were not written with the same quality as the first ten or so chapters. However, that was the thought I had after the first semester I used this text. Since then, multiple updates have been written and the entire text is now written in the same high-quality throughout. Because this title is being constantly updated by its authors and publishers, the text is never obsolete.

Terminology is clearly defined, and students have little trouble finding definitions in the glossary. Because this text is written for an introductory course, there are not many intense or confusing concepts for students to understand.

Consistency rating: 3

As previously mentioned, the biggest struggle I've had with this text is the fact that the latter third was not written to the same quality of the first ten chapters. However, this issue seems to have been remedied in the latest edition of this text.

The modularity was the biggest selling point for me with this text. Our semester runs 15 weeks, the same number of chapters in this text. I was able to easily focus our classroom discussions and assignments on the chapter theme each week. The text also provides plenty of material for two or three discussions.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The text starts by introducing some basic concepts like culture and effects. From there, it focuses on ten different types of media (books, newspaper, radio, television, etc.). The concluding three chapters go back to concepts such ethics and the future of mass media. While not a major issue, there was a major difference in the tone of the two types of chapters.

This text is available in .pdf, kindle, .epub, and .mobi formats, as well as in browser. While nothing fancy or groundbreaking in terms of usability, it is simple and all of my students were able to download the format that best suited their individual needs.

The text contained no grammatical errors that I noticed in the latest edition, a tremendous improvement from the first semester I used this text.

I did not find the content to be culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. It used a variety of examples from the world's history, but I found none of them to be inherently offensive. The subject matter and the fact that this is an introductory text probably assist with the cultural relevance because it is easy to understand, but the themes rarely get into "deep" discussion.

This is a fantastic text. Comparing it to other texts for my COMM 2200 Mass Media & Society text, this textbook was not only easier for my students to understand, but it was written and compiled in a way that made teaching the material enjoyable and easy. I have recommended this book to the other instructors of this course because it allows our students to save money without sacrificing anything in terms of content or learning.

Reviewed by Heather Lubay, Adjunct Faculty, Portland Community College on 8/2/18

Overall the book is comprehensive, covering everything from books to radio to electronic media &amp; social media. Each topic has a descent amount of information on both the history and evolution, as well as where we are today (though, as tends to... read more

Overall the book is comprehensive, covering everything from books to radio to electronic media & social media. Each topic has a descent amount of information on both the history and evolution, as well as where we are today (though, as tends to be the nature of the industry, the “today” piece gets outdated quickly. However, the text covers the topics that most other texts of this subject cover as well. I would have liked to have seen just a bit more depth and analysis, instead of the broad, surface-level coverage.

The text is fairly accurate, though, with the rapid rate of change, it’s difficult to be accurate shortly after publication. Using sites such as MySpace as an example, or only looking at movies put out through about 2007, impacts the accuracy as society has changed and moved on. Students in 2018 are given more of a historical perspective from when they were kids more so than having a representation of what media means in today’s world.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 2

This is a hard one because the historical information stands the test of time, but many of the examples fall short for today’s students. The Social Media chapter still references MySpace and Friendster as current platforms and only goes as far as FaceBook & Twitter. The author makes it a point to clarify when the book what published, which helps, but, again, it’ll be hard for a current student to see past that when they’ve grown up with the platform being discussed as “new” and have moved on.

The book is fairly fast-paced and easy enough to follow for lower level or beginner students. Examples are easy to follow and the key takeaway boxes and exercises help further basic understanding.

The chapters are fairly consistent, covering the basic history, evolution, and influence/impact.

The text can easily be used as formatted, or broken up into sections and moved around.

The organization is fairly straightforward. Earlier forms of mass communication are covered first, moving on to newer forms. Once students have a basic understanding of each form, they can then move on to topics like ethics, government, and economics, which need that basic understanding to fully grasp the larger concepts.

The book is easy to navigate with had no issues viewing the photos or charts.

The book is well written and free of any gratuitous errors.

The book does a good job of focusing on US media and society. It uses pretty typical examples, though it could incorporate more relevant examples to today’s students. Some case studies reference minority groups, but it would have been nice to see even more examples featuring minority groups. Also, Using YouTube as a “new” viewing outlet and discussing “The war between satellite and cable television” and DirectTV versus Dish makes the cultural relevance more towards older generations than younger ones.

Overall the book does a great job with the history of mass communication and society. It would work for any lower level course. However, the examples are fairly out of date and the instructor would have to present more recent and relevant examples in class.

Reviewed by Randy (Rachel) Kovacs, Adjunct Associate Professor, City University of New York on 6/19/18

I like the way that the author has broadened the scope of the book to incorporate so many aspects of culture, society, politics and economics that some people would be inclined to distinguish from the mass media, when in reality, all these aspects... read more

I like the way that the author has broadened the scope of the book to incorporate so many aspects of culture, society, politics and economics that some people would be inclined to distinguish from the mass media, when in reality, all these aspects of contemporary life are intertwined with and influenced by media messages. It provides an historical retrospective but also shows how convergence and constantly-evolving technologies have driven the way consumers use the media and the way producers will use those technologies to rivet the attention (and influence the purchasing choices) of today’s consumers. The text incorporates the most salient areas of media’s evolution and influence.

The book appears to be objective and adopts a critical but non-partisan perspective. It presents data, including media laws and policies, accurately, and the cases it cites are well documented. The author provides sufficient references to support the facts he states and the conclusions he draws. Caveat--The media landscape and technologies are constantly evolving, so the book is accurate for its time of publication but needs to be updated to include new developments.

The way that the author integrates the historical perspective with current roles of social media in is a clear indication of its relevance. The dates may change, as may the celebrities, industrialists, spokespersons, and there may be geopolitical and cultural shifts, but the author’s explanation of theories/principles and the cases selected show how mass media power and influence are here to stay. The author advances the salient issues at each juncture and contextualizes so they we can relate them to current events. The book could be updated but is still has relevance/longevity.

The book is written in a language that is accessible to the layman/beginning student of mass media. The cases that are boxed, and key takeaways at the end of each chapter further distill what is already explicated. There are many concrete facts but a minimum of jargon and any terms used are adequately explained.

The framework and the terminology are consistent. There is also a consistent structure in terms of the visual layout and breakdown of each chapter’s sections, which makes the material far more accessible to students. It’s reassuring in a way, because students know where to go in each chapter for clarification of terms and restatement of the major media developments or areas of impact.

The book’s content is broken down within chapters into (pardon the expression) digestible chunks. The way each subsection is organized makes sense. The major sections where media, developments, policies, etc., are first introduced are illustrated by boxed portions and then reiterated clearly at the end of the chapter with small, chunked takeaways and questions that challenge the students to ponder issues more deeply. The modules are distinguished by color, typset, size of font, etc. which is aesthetically appealing.

The organization makes sense and the topics segue smoothly from one area of media focus to another. Also, the way the book opens with an overview of mass media and cultural is a good starting point from which to document specific historical eras in the development of communication and to transition from one era of communication to another within a context of technology, politics, industry and other variables.

: The text does not have any interface issues, as it is easy to navigate, all illustrations, charts, and other visuals are clear and distortion-free. All features of the book are legible and all display features are legible and functional.

The book is grammatically accurate and error-free.

The book represents a range of cultural groups in a sensitive and bias-free way. Its discussions of media with regard to both dominant cultures and various minority cultures is respectful, bias-free, and non-stereotypical. It is culturally relevant and inclusive.

For many years, I have used a textbook that I have regarded as very high quality and comprehensive, but as it has become increasingly expensive and out of reach financially for many of my students, I find it hard to justify asking my struggling students to add another financial burden to them. Why should I when they can use this OER textbook? I am seriously considering using Understanding Media and Culture in future semesters and recommending it to my colleagues.

Reviewed by Stacie Mariette, Mass Communication instructor, Anoka-Ramsey Community College on 5/21/18

This OER is very comprehensive. I used it for an online course as a PDF textbook. While this discipline evolves faster than any other communication area I teach, this book remains solidly grounded in a wide variety of resources and foundational... read more

This OER is very comprehensive. I used it for an online course as a PDF textbook. While this discipline evolves faster than any other communication area I teach, this book remains solidly grounded in a wide variety of resources and foundational theories.

As I use it more often, I find myself wanting to update it only for examples regarding the evolution in technology/platforms and the societal/cultural changes that result – not to change the historical content of what is already there.

I haven't come across any factual errors at all.

The examples in this book are often dated. This is my one very mild criticism of this text and only reflects the nature of the information. As we grow into new media and adapt as a society to those delivery methods, it's only natural. I actually use updating the examples in the textbook as an assignment for students.

Some closer to up-to-date examples that I have added into my teaching of the course and to the materials are:

"Fake news" and social media's role in spreading it, especially in terms of Facebook and the last election

Data mining and algorithm practices

"Listening" devices and digital assistants, like Siri and Alexa

The subculture of podcasts

Business models – both for artists and consumers – of streaming services across all media

The chapter on convergence is short and could be a text all on its own. Information relating to this topic is sprinkled throughout the book, but the concept itself is so important to analyze that I like to think about it on its own. This is an area I will beef up in future semesters for my own students.

Streaming services and online journalism overall are two areas that I have noted to update and reference in nearly every chapter.

The short segments and snippets of information are very helpful and clear for students. It's all very digestible and the vocabulary is at just the right level.

The discussion questions and further reading/information are placed in logical places in each chapter. And this consistency helps the reader understand their prompts and what to do next – and additionally the important topics to take away.

I love how this text can be reordered very easily. Since it's so comprehensive, I actually omit a couple of the chapters (radio and magazines) to take the info at a slower pace and have never struggled with remixing other chapters.

In fact, I plan to blend Chapters 11 and 16 (Social Media and New Technology) for my upcoming semesters and have no doubt the text and materials will allow for this.

I like how the chapters primarily focus on one medium at a time. From there, the structure of evolution, technological advancements, social/cultural implications and then a look at trends and emerging controversies helps to build to exciting and relevant discussions and for students to have the backdrop to bring their own insights.

The interface is reliable and easy-to-use. I deliver it as a PDF within my online classroom software. I have never had issues with students downloading and reading on multiple devices – or even printing and referencing – based on their preferences.

This book is very concise and grammatically crisp. It's clear that the authors of the version I am using valued precision in their language and it helps students to see this resource as high-quality!

Cultural and societal relevance are important in this discipline and it's purposely covered in each and every chapter. However, as I mentioned earlier, the examples are outdated in many cases. So I layer this into class discussions and supplement with further readings and assignments. Some of the topics I add are: Representation in entertainment media, like TV and film, for example how the #MeToo movement gained ground based on the film industry Ways that online gaming culture is permissive of the communication of –isms, like sexism and racism Ways that social media and screen time are impacting attention spans, interpersonal relationships/communication and child development How citizen-sourced video and reporting differs from that of trained journalists and how important the differences are The section on media effects is helpful and thorough. I always include a key assignment on this topic. It's also an area I plan to emphasize even more in the future – particularly the idea of tastemaking and gatekeeping. There are many crossovers to many examples that are more up-to-date than the version of the text I have been using.

I love this book and it is on-par with many others I have reviewed for my Introduction to Mass Communication class.

Reviewed by Stacy Fitzpatrick, Professor, North Hennepin Community College on 5/21/18

The presentation of the historical context of media evolution in the US is clear and reasonably detailed, providing a good foundation for an introductory level course. As other reviewers have mentioned, this text was published in 2010 and is out... read more

The presentation of the historical context of media evolution in the US is clear and reasonably detailed, providing a good foundation for an introductory level course. As other reviewers have mentioned, this text was published in 2010 and is out of date in multiple areas, particularly with respect to media laws and regulation, social media, and newer developments of technology (e.g. preference for streaming television, technological and social advancements in gaming). Beyond needing updates to reflect newer advancements in media, this text would benefit from more attention to global media structures, including how they vary across political systems and how they impact how citizens use media to communicate. Additionally, an index and glossary would be helpful for navigation.

I am basing this on the fact that this was published in 2010. Considering the publication date, the factual content for that particular time frame is presented accurately, clearly cited, and reasonably unbiased. There is perhaps an unintended gender bias in the presentation of some content (e.g. Sister Rosetta Tharpe is absent in the music section, as is Nina Simone), though this could be a result of a broader, societal gender bias. Images, charts, and graphs are used well and clearly explained.

The historical content is fine, but the text is almost 9 years out of date and there is a great deal of content that needs to be updated. Making the necessary updates may take some time since the content is tightly written and there are reflections of the date of publication throughout the examples used, images presented, and media discussed. Using this text in class would require the instructor to provide supplemental content on newer advancements in media.

This text is appropriate for a freshman/sophomore level course and reads well. Important terms are defined and each section includes an overview to set a context and clearly defined learning objectives.

The language, terminology, and organization of the text is consistent throughout. This makes moving between chapters easy since they follow a similar format.

With a few exceptions (chapters 1 and 2), the text lends itself well to using different sections at different points. Where there are self-references, there is typically a hyperlink to the section referenced. This is useful for those reading the text online, but less useful if printed sections of text were used.

Chapters 1 and 2 clearly present a structure that the following chapters follow. The only chapter that seems to really break that flow is Chapter 16, but that is more a result of the text being so out of date than a significant change in structure.

I found the online reading format the easiest to navigate. The Word and PDF versions are somewhat more awkward to navigate without using a search keyboard function.

There were a couple minor typos, but no significant grammatical errors that might impact comprehension. The readability assessment (via MS Word) indicated a reading grade level of 13.1, which is consistent with lower division college coursework.

There is a heavy focus on US media, which is acknowledged early on in the text. More integration of content related to global media would strengthen the text. There should be more examples that integrate multiple forms of diversity, such as gender, ability, age, sexuality, race, and ethnicity. Additionally, without an update, younger students may not understand some of the references. For example, younger students in 2018 don’t know Napster as a file-sharing site since it has rebranded to become a streaming site more similar to Spotify.

It would be great to see an update in the content of this text for 2018 that also incorporates broader perspectives of multiple identities and global perspectives. As is, I would use sections of the text and supplement that content with more current examples and issues. Balancing the cost of textbooks in this field with the quality and recency of the content is an ongoing challenge.

Reviewed by Craig Freeman, Director, Oklahoma State University on 5/21/18

The book covers all of the topics you would expect in an inter/ survey course. read more

The book covers all of the topics you would expect in an inter/ survey course.

The book does a good job of accurately surveying mass communications. Good job sourcing information.

The most recent citations are from 2010. That's just too far in the past for a rapidly changing subject like mass communication.

The book is clear and easy to read. Well written.

The book is internally consistent, with recurring sections.

The book does a good job breaking the information down into smaller reading sections.

The book follows the standard structure and flow for introductory texts in mass communication.

The interface is fine. It's a big book. Would appreciate active links to help skip chapters.

No grammatical errors.

I would appreciate a little more diversity in the examples used.

Really wish the authors would update this a bit. It does a great job with the history. Needs updating on the modern issues.

Reviewed by Kateryna Komarova, Visiting Instructor, University of South Florida on 3/27/18

The title Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication suggests that we are looking at a comprehensive introductory text. In my opinion, this book is the most valuable to GE courses and entry level courses across Mass... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

The title Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication suggests that we are looking at a comprehensive introductory text. In my opinion, this book is the most valuable to GE courses and entry level courses across Mass Communication disciplines, as it does excellent job in covering the fundamentals of mass communication. The textbook is heavy on history, which is a great thing.

I found the content to be accurate and, to my knowledge, error-free.

In comparison with other introductory texts, the content is generally up-to date with current trends. Yet, the distribution of attention towards various forms of media tends to be slightly disproportional. For instance, print magazines alone (essentially, one of many forms of print media that’s experiencing a stable continuous decline) receive as much attention as all forms of social media altogether. As a communications practitioner and an instructor, I was pleased to see information on the merge of paid media and social media (content partnerships and native advertising being the prime examples, albeit these particular terms were not used by the author). On the other hand, some aspects of current media landscape (such as the role of mobile apps, for instance) could be explored further.

The text is written in simple, easy-to-understand language and would be appropriate to non-native speakers.

I find this text to be consistent in terms of terminology.

The book is organized in rather non-trivial fashion, without a unified approach to chapter categorization. Yet, I found this approach refreshing. I loved that the author suggests specific learning outcomes for each section (example: "Distinguish between mass communication and mass media"), key takeaways, and practical exercises. The question bank provided as part of this textbook is a treasure box! It’s a great resource that allows me to have more fun in the classroom by asking interesting questions that wake up the students and generate some amazing answers. The chapters are designed to be used selectively, in no particular order. Big plus.

The content is presented in chronological pattern: from past to future. Other than that, I did not trace much consistency in the material. For instance, Media and Culture is followed by Media Effects, after which the author switches to reviewing various forms of media (Radio, Magazines, Newspapers, etc.). The chapters to follow are Economics of Mass Media and Ethics of Mass Media. I find to be an advantage, as the subsections may be used selectively, and the order may be easily redesigned.

I read the textbook online via the Open Library portal http://open.lib.umn.edu/mediaandculture/chapter/1-2-intersection-of-american-media-and-culture/ . I found the navigation to be very easy. Good interface.

I did not spot any grammatical errors.

I found the content USA-centric. For this reason, it may have limited application to global courses (such as Global Citizens Project courses offered at USF). The majority of case studies are drawn from the United States; much attention is paid to the history of mass media in the USA and current U.S. legislation safeguarding privacy. In today’s increasingly globalized culture and economy, a broader outlook on media and culture may be expected. More international references would enhance the points made by the author. It is important for students to understand that major trends in mass communication, such as convergence of the media, are not unique to the United States. Similarly, increasing media literacy should be positioned as a global, rather than national, priority.

It is a great introductory text that provides a current overview of various forms of media and highlights the role of mass communication in society.

Reviewed by Joel Gershon, Adjunct Professor, American University on 2/1/18

The book should be the perfect fit for my course Understanding Media, as it indeed covers all of the subject matter of the course. The problem is that it is not up to date and therefore detracts from the complete picture that each one of these... read more

The book should be the perfect fit for my course Understanding Media, as it indeed covers all of the subject matter of the course. The problem is that it is not up to date and therefore detracts from the complete picture that each one of these topics delves into. For example, the music section poses the question: How do the various MP3 players differ? It refers to Spin as a magazine (it ceased its print operations in 2012). Or in the section on television, there is a question about the war between satellite and cable television. I think the winner of that is neither, as streaming a la carte is what people are talking about in 2017 as the direction TV is going in.

This criticism, of course, is obvious and easy. It's actually an exhaustive book that does contain a wealth of useful information, although no glossary or index – glaring omissions. Unfortunately, it suffers from not being up to 2017, when we are living in an up-to-the-second world. Especially in a field like media studies, it makes this book unusable in its entirety. The chapter ethics and economics aren't as badly out of date.

It is accurate for the time it was written in, but in today's world, much of this doesn't hold up. Just one example, there is the claim that Reader's Digest has the third highest circulation of all magazine, which is no longer the case in 2017. It is not in good shape. Even the references to "President Obama," obviously show that it was written a different era with a very different landscape for the media world. Still, the great majority of it appears to be represented fairly, albeit in an outmoded way. It's just that the trends and latest innovations in 2010 won't even make sense to a college freshman whose frame of reference likely came about three years after

Content is up-to-date, but not in a way that will quickly make the text obsolete within a short period of time. The text is written and/or arranged in such a way that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

Obviously, this is a major weak link of the textbook. I've already commented on this, but I think any time the textbook is referring to MySpace or Friendster in a way that suggests that they are viable social media sites, it makes itself into a caricature of an outdated guide.

No real problem here. The book is fully clear, well-written and to the point. The problem is that the point was made in 2010. That said, there is no glossary or index.

Again, this book is solid as a foundational textbook to get students the basic information regarding the history and meaningful cultural highlights of different forms of media. From radio to media and democracy, the lessons are thorough and contain useful and important information. It's just that some of this information is outdated.

The book is quite easy to read, the organization is fine and reads like any typical textbook. I will say that there have been advancements made, and that this book should be more interactive and multi-media if it wants to keep up with the Joneses.

It's fine in this regard. The writing itself is great and it's broken up nicely. Very readable and I wish it was up to date because it's a solid textbook.

This is fine for 2010, but there is no interactivity or video or things to let us know that we are in 2017.It's basic and fine, but nothing stands out are particularly innovative.

Written well. No issue here at all.

Again, this is the fatal flaw of the book. It's just not going to be persuasive if it doesn't manage to maintain the sensibilities of someone in 2017. Between politics and technology there have been extreme shifts in the media in the past few years and a book like this would need to be updated monthly to stay relevant. It could work as a historical document to see how people thought in 2010, but not really as a relevant book today.

Reviewed by Suzi Steffen, Instructor, Linn-Benton Community College on 6/20/17

This text is rather comprehensive, at least for the time it was published. It covers pretty much any topic one might want to cover in a Media and Society or introductory media and communications class, though for those interested in topic areas... read more

This text is rather comprehensive, at least for the time it was published. It covers pretty much any topic one might want to cover in a Media and Society or introductory media and communications class, though for those interested in topic areas like journalism, advertising, and public relations, this textbook is much more about the history of those areas than how they are surviving and functioning today (and that's fine with me; I can update with information that's more recent). There is no index (at least in this form), and there is no glossary, but terms are well-defined within each chapter and within pull-out boxes as well. It would be incumbent upon the professor and students to keep some kind of glossary or wiki, which is not a bad idea for a media history/media and society class in any case.

Often in a textbook for media and society or media history, one can see the author's world view shining through - is capitalism too much for media? Should media creators take an "unbiased" view of the world? How is a medium influenced by the way it is funded? The book has a solid conversational tone and is authoritative on its history, but I might prefer a little more analysis of media ownership and consolidation. As for accuracy, yes, the facts seem quite accurate to the best of my knowledge, and the text is written (and edited) by someone with a journalist's view of language - it's useful, it's best done well, and occasionally it lends itself to some essayistic moments.

I'm not sure there's a way to write a book like this that can keep it relevant past the month in which it was written, much less seven years later. Many of the examples the author uses to illustrate music, social media, books, newspapers (some of which don't exist anymore), magazines (ditto), etc., are simply no longer relevant. It *is* interesting to read about what the author thought was relevant at the time, and what the author thought would last, but this kind of book needs almost constant updating during this time of constant media churn and reinvention. I am giving it a 3, but really it's more like a 2.5 as any instructor would need constantly to find new examples that students will understand.

The book is accessible and lucid, absolutely. As with any history of a large discipline, the book contains a fair amount of jargon that is relevant to each portion of the subject matter covered, and the book is good about not only giving context and giving definitions but also setting aside boxed or special areas for examples that reinforce what it's talking about. The key takeaways at the end of each chapter, added to the exercises that are meant to help the students understand what's important in the dense historical detail and context of each chapter, are helpful as well.

This book is wonderfully consistent with terminology and the framework it employs to discuss media across a wide range of areas. From the beginning of each chapter, where an introduction lays out the plan of the chapter, to the end of each chapter - where a box of "key takeaways" explains what students should have learned - the book keeps a tone of very slightly amused detachment, mixed with earnest passion for certain topics, throughout, which is utterly consistent with how media people actually live their lives.

The text is definitely modular. It's written in a way that could easily be read in various chunks as the instructor or professor wishes to assign it. Blocks of text are broken up with images, a few charts, and a few stories that are boxed and that illustrate examples of topics within the chapters.

I think it's hard to know how to organize a media history/media and society textbook. Do you start with the printed word? But then, what about radio? Should radio come closer to magazines or closer to movies and TV? In that case, where do audiobooks and podcasts go? So, even as any instructor would grapple with these sorts of questions, the book is laid out in a way that made sense to the author - and that can be ripped apart and reassigned by each instructor. There's no need to read economics at the end of the course; perhaps, despite the fact that it's at the end of the book, it should come at the front end of the course - and because it's modular enough for flexibility, that's not a problem.

I read the textbook on my desktop Kindle and on my phone. It's not super with the images or charts, and the boxed questions and exercises at the end are especially hard to take. This interface could use a little attention, at least in the Kindle applications area. It's not impossible; it just needs some work.

No errors that I saw, though a textbook without at least a few grammatical errors is a miracle.

It's hard to say whether it's culturally insensitive or offensive because, well, I'm a white woman. I note that it talks about U.S. media's places (different for advertising, PR, newspapers, etc.) in the Civil Rights Movement and to a certain extent it discusses the ways that major media have been controlled or run by men, by white men, by straight white men. But I don't think the text addresses any of these things in the depth or with the clarity of thought that one would like to see in 2017. (Yes, it's a 2010 text.) In gaming, in Twitter discussions, in talking about newspapers or online media, the book is simply behind the times, and that makes it culturally problematic if not insensitive.

I am reluctant to adopt this book with students who really need more recent examples to make sense of how things are going now, today, in 2017, though it's also relevant for them to learn the history of how we got here (if anyone can really understand that at this point). I'd love to use a newer edition if one comes out. I might use or adapt parts of it along with other readings for my media and society class in 2018, but I'll be cautious about that.

Reviewed by Shearon Roberts, Assistant Professor of Mass Communication, Xavier University of Louisiana on 6/20/17

The textbook hits the standard areas for a typical Introduction to Mass Communication course: evolution of media industries, media and society, media effects and theories, media law and ethics, the digital age, and global media. It is... read more

The textbook hits the standard areas for a typical Introduction to Mass Communication course: evolution of media industries, media and society, media effects and theories, media law and ethics, the digital age, and global media. It is comprehensive in its case studies and historical events that are typically taught for an Introduction to Mass Communication course. The text is current as there is a chapter on the Internet and Social Media and several chapters look at the digital revolution as it impacts media industries. There is no glossary or index, however. Instructors will have to rely on chapter sections for lesson planning.

From Gutenberg to Apple and Google, the book provides content that is accurate on the development of media. The author thoroughly cites case studies and provides questions for critical thinking about issues affecting media industry trends and on the impact of the media on the public. Statistics, data and trends are appropriately cited for reference check on accuracy of estimates.

Case studies and citations stop at 2010. However, the author makes projections for media trends up to 2020. Since media industries are most vulnerable to yearly change, the information in the book holds for now, although the positions of some of the digital media players have changed since the book has come out. However, the author is careful to clarify dates for events that were transformative for media industry changes, at the point in which these events occurred, even if changes have occurred since the book was published in 2010. Within another 5 years, the book is likely to need some updates to digital age developments.

The language used is accessible for a first year student taking an Introduction to Mass Communication course. The theory, ethics and law chapters are broken down for a 1000-2000 level course. The case studies and critical thinking boxes are useful in helping to break down and apply a wealth of information in the text for students to conceptualize the importance of historical events and their social or cultural impacts.

The author is clear on defining media industries, digital convergence and common theories in mass communication.

Instructors can easily use the text as is, or piece together sections on history, digitization and media and society from several chapters, depending on the instructor’s preference.

The text follows the standard logic for media introduction courses moving students through print, to audio, to film to broadcasting and to the digital age. The author wisely weaves in the impact of new media in each of these phases of evolution so the student does not have to wait until the end of the text to see the impacts of the changes of the industry, as they understand media to be today.

While the interface is simple, all graphics and text boxes, as well as assignments are designed similarly throughout the text and easy to locate as an e-text for student work.

Sentences throughout the text are concisely written and the text appears thoroughly proofed.

It was important for me to see examples of race, gender and global dimensions of the media represented as case studies, assignments and critical thinking in the book. From using The Birth of a Nation and its outcry from the NAACP in the film chapter to the rice of BET, or the understanding stereotyping of African Americans in TV, this book has relevant examples that relate to minority students or for a Historically Black University. I did however see no mention of the black press, or the work of alternative media in introduction narratives left out of the mainstream media. However, most introductory media textbooks, also leave this out. If this is an interest area for diverse students, unfortunately instructors are left to source that information themselves. But the most prominent case studies for diverse groups can be found in this text.

It was surprising to discover such an open-textbook as the cost of Intro to Mass Communication textbooks are typically over $100 and students only use this textbook once. This is a valuable resource. I hope the author would consider updating in a few years for recent developments and important case studies such as the #BlackLivesMatter movement and President Donald Trump's election for an examination of media literacy.

Reviewed by Gwyneth Mellinger, Professor and Director, School of Media Arts & Design, James Madison University on 6/20/17

The book covers all of the subject areas typically touched on in a media and society survey course; however, the discussions within chapters would benefit greatly from more examples and, in some cases, greater detail in explanation. I often... read more

The book covers all of the subject areas typically touched on in a media and society survey course; however, the discussions within chapters would benefit greatly from more examples and, in some cases, greater detail in explanation. I often thought the content was pretty thin. This was particularly so in Chapter 2, where the treatment of effects theories and media studies controversies required much more supporting discussion to be relevant to undergraduates. The greatest weakness in the text, and the specific reason I would not adopt it for my own course, is that the book's engagement of social and digital media is, for the most part, woefully out of date and separated into discrete chapter segments, rather than synthesized into discussions directly. A text on media and society assigned in 2017 cannot be comprehensive if it does not engage media in a way that makes sense to the students who are reading it. There is no index or glossary.

Content Accuracy rating: 2

There is no bias in the text and historical detail appeared to be represented accurately. Again, I question whether a book written in 2010, which lacks full context for the subject matter, can accurately reflect media and society for students in 2017. For example, in 4.6, online journalism is represented as blogs and online newspapers. That is an accuracy issue for today's students.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 1

The book is out of date. Examples and context stop at 2010, and many cultural references will not resonate with current students, which is the point of examples and cultural context. The Beatlemania example early in the book and the references to 2009 in the opening paragraphs advertise the lack of currency. Significantly, the book cannot be easily updated in its current form because its approach and perspective are also out of date. By failing to integrate social media and the Internet into the central narrative, the book emphasizes legacy media in a way that is no longer relevant.

The book is clearly written, though additional examples and context would be helpful in places.

The narrative is consistent in terminology and framework.

The modularity of the text would allow use of sections of the text at different points in a course.

The content in Chapter 11 on evolution of the Internet and the impact of social media belongs near the beginning, not the end, of the text. In addition, the impact of media economics on content is downplayed by sequestering this discussion in Chapter 13. Each chapter on legacy media ends with a section on the impact of new technology on that medium. These sections feel tacked on.

There were no interface issues. That said, the book lacked the visual engagement used by many media and society texts to capture and maintain the interest of today's students.

The text is clean. Of note, the text correctly uses "media" as a plural noun. There was, however, this awkward subheading at 1.2: "What Does Media Do?"

The text is not culturally insensitive. It acknowledges cultural imperialism and the digital divides as issues. There are examples of media content that would be deemed inclusive. That is not to say, however, that today's students would find the examples culturally relevant. The book is written from their grandparents' perspective.

Without irony, the unknown author of the text includes in a media literacy checklist and discussion (1.8) the advice that students should scrutinize the identity and credentials of authors. This same section warns against anonymous online sources. This is a conceptual problem with this particular online text. It's not clear why the author wants to distance her/himself from the project, but it creates a question of credibility.

Reviewed by Elizabeth England-Kennedy, Assistant Professor, Rhode Island College on 4/11/17

The book is extremely comprehensive. Not only does it include all forms of mass media, but it intelligently and thoughtfully addresses critical concepts such as ethics and culture. Photojournalism (especially the work of muckrakers such as Jacob... read more

The book is extremely comprehensive. Not only does it include all forms of mass media, but it intelligently and thoughtfully addresses critical concepts such as ethics and culture. Photojournalism (especially the work of muckrakers such as Jacob Riis) is not included, and investigative reporting is too briefly addressed, although including advocacy journalism was a sound choice. There is no index or glossary. The lack of a glossary is surprising since key words are already highlighted in text.

The text is accurate and information is fairly represented and free of personal bias. No errors were found.

This is the most concerning characteristic of the book: The information has long-term relevance and is written in a highly readable way that will enhance its longevity. However, the examples tend to be temporally but often not generationally up-to-date and positioned for longevity. For example, beginning the book with an example that is this far removed from today's undergraduates' world may lessen their interest in reading further, as opposed to beginning with more focus on Beatlemania and then moving to an example of an artist/group more accessible to their generation. Additional examples used later in the book are drawn from recent time frames, but may not be commonly accessed. This is the only aspect of the book that would make me hesitate to adopt it.

The text is written in lucid prose that is accessible to introductory readers, though individuals whose first language is not English could have some difficulty reading independently. However, with minimal pre-reading guidance (e.g., introducing concepts that will be included in an upcoming reading assignment, instruction on how to use the Learning Objectives and Key Takeaways to best effect), these readers should also be able to understand and effectively use the text. Context is given for jargon/technical terminology, and definitions are generally clear.

The text is consistent in format, terminology, framework, and tone.

Modularity rating: 1

The book is clearly divided into relatively short subsections that are logically sequenced. Longer sections tend to be broken up by images, all of which are relevant examples of concepts being discussed in the section. The Learning Objectives, Key Takeaways, End-of-Chapter Assessments, and Critical Thinking Questions sections for each module are useful for guiding student reading and could be easily adapted into learning exercises and assessments such as discussions, quizzes, exams, and writing assignments. The Career Connection section at the end of chapters is innovative, and could be especially useful for students considering majors in communications-related fields. Chapters and sub-sections could be used independently in reading packets or rearranged without their being weakened, making it a more flexible resource or textbook.

The organization is clear. Sections are clearly labeled and of approximately the same length. Titles of chapters and subsections are logical and clear. Topics are logical laid out: An overview of foundational concepts in the first two chapters frames the remaining chapters effectively. The remaining chapters are organized in a historically-logical order. This structure is well-designed to helps readers better understand how an increase in the number and forms of media channels impacts audiences and media effects. Chapters are also internally well-organized and could be used separately as desired.

There are no interface difficulties. Pictures are clear and free of distortion. Navigation is clear and easy to use. Because the sections are short, reader interest should be maintained despite the low level of images included. Multiple platforms can be used.

The text contains no grammatical errors. A nice touch by the author is to clarify and model the correct grammatical usage of "medium" vs "media."

No cultural insensitivity or offensiveness was found. The author acknowledges that the book is focused on US media and includes culturally diverse examples. Topics such as cultural imperialism are addressed specifically. Related topics such as cultural appropriation and marginalization are referenced, although these specific terms are not necessarily used (e.g., the latter is addressed in the chapter on music as an outcome of the oligopoly in music without using the term "marginalization"). This could have been taken further; for example, the section on "Issues and Trends in Film" does not address concerns about "whitewashing" or lack of diversity in Hollywood movies and the section on Independent films does not address movies that countered these trends (e.g., the work of Spike Lee and Robert Rodriguez). However, the book lays the groundwork necessary for a discussion of such concepts in class or for use of supplemental materials that build on this text.

The book could be used as a stand-alone for an introductory class. Sections could be used in more advanced classes as supplemental readings or in reading packets.

Reviewed by Kevin Smith, Instructor, Chemeketa Community College on 2/15/17

This text is comprehensive in its coverage of all major media platforms and key general concepts related to mass media. There are times (e.g. Chapter 2: Media Effects) when some concepts are defined vaguely, but this is not indicative of the book... read more

This text is comprehensive in its coverage of all major media platforms and key general concepts related to mass media. There are times (e.g. Chapter 2: Media Effects) when some concepts are defined vaguely, but this is not indicative of the book as a whole. There is no glossary nor index, but most terms are defined well in the context of each chapter. The review sections at the end of each chapter would also help students organize and recall relevant information as they study. There is little that I feel is missing from this textbook that would be appropriate for an introductory mass media course.

A neutral, objective tone is struck throughout, with no apparent errors or gaps in coverage of major media and concepts. To the best of my knowledge, I believe this text to be free of errors, although it needs to be updated.

While this text is outstanding in its coverage and clarity, it is now seven years out-of-date and needs to be updated. A text on mass media should reflect the most recent changes in technology and economic and political contexts.

This text appears to be written for college freshmen and sophomores. Perhaps even upper-level high school students could successfully grasp its content. Most jargon particular to the discipline is defined and illustrated thoroughly.

The text is rigorous throughout, with even weight given to all concepts. There are occasional overlaps between chapters in coverage of terms (e.g. media bias), but nothing that seems sloppy or out-of-place. The historical overview of media technologies blends seamlessly with the beginning and later chapters on media studies concepts.

The structure of the book lends itself exceptionally well to divisibility, while demonstrating the ability to maintain its own internal coherence. The text seems designed for a semester-long course, so those looking to use it for quarters or with students whose expected reading loads might be lighter will find it easy to pull only what they need from it without sacrificing clarity.

The book's content is designed expertly, with introductory chapters leading into a chronological overview of the history of media technologies (books to social media). The text concludes by expanding its scope to cover more general concepts (e.g.media ethics) that scaffold on previously discussed ideas. This framework would greatly aid students in comprehending central ideas in media studies as they relate to specific technologies and historical periods.

I did not notice any problems in this area, although a cover might be helpful in identifying the text.

I noticed some minor typos, but nothing that reflects poorly on the high level of discourse and mechanical aspects of the text.

The text employs examples that would be helpful to students as they seek to understand mass media in diverse settings. There was no inappropriate content noted. The text is respectful and inclusive in this sense.

The end of chapter summaries, takeaways, exercises and critical thinking questions are outstanding and would serve any instructor well in designing a course with relevant activities tied directly to the text, while also pointing to other sources in contemporary mass media. The book is an invaluable resource that deserves the attention of a group of scholars who can update its content in order that it be more relevant to students.

Reviewed by Amy Rawson, Professor, Century College on 2/8/17

Interestingly, this textbook was more comprehensive than I originally expected. The text covered all of the major areas to be expected in a mass communication textbook: Media, Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, Movies, TV, Games, Internet &amp;... read more

Interestingly, this textbook was more comprehensive than I originally expected. The text covered all of the major areas to be expected in a mass communication textbook: Media, Books, Newspapers, Magazines, Radio, Movies, TV, Games, Internet & Social Media, Advertising & PR, Economics, Ethics, Media & Government and the Future of Mass Media. However, I am giving 4 stars because there is no index or glossary which I deem especially important for a mass communication textbook.

The textbook is accurate. I also like the chapter on the future of mass media. The textbook seems to be error-free and unbiased. Each chapter section includes a few learning objectives and a few "key takeaways." There are also exercise questions at the end of each chapter section. The examples in the exercise questions are dated. It would be nice to have more current examples. However, I would prefer questions about the chapter at the end of the entire chapter or at the end of each section in addition to the objectives, takeaways and exercises. Thus, I am giving 4 stars for outdated examples.

I agree with another reviewer that the examples are a bit dated (which quickly happens in a mass communication textbook). This affects the credibility of the overall text. For example, in Chapter 16.1 Changes in Media Over the Last Century the example box titled "Pay-for-it Content: Will it Work?" is from 2009! This is 2017.

The textbook is written in clear and easily understood language. It is accessible and comprehensible. It would be nice to have a glossary for students for the mass communication jargon.

The text seems to be consistent with terminology and framework. However, the textbook seems dated overall and new terminology and frameworks could be added to make it more relevant and interesting for students.

The modularity of the textbook is good. It is easily and readily divisible into smaller reading sections that can be assigned different points within the course. I like the division of the chapters into subsections.

The organization/structure/flow of the textbook is good. However, I agree with another reviewer that the textbook is too lengthy. In my opinion, 647 pages is too long. Although I have used other textbooks of similar length, there are many more vivid visuals for students and more timely information and examples.

The text is free of significant interface issues that may confuse or distract the reader.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

The textbook examples for cultural relevance could be more current.

Thank you for this opportunity. I like the idea of an open textbook and would be interested in doing more reviews in the future.

Reviewed by Tom Grier, Professor, Winona State University on 8/21/16

The book is comprehensive, covering the study of media and its intersection with culture, through an in-depth look at each of the major mediums, then content considerations, economics and ethics issues related to the mass media. read more

The book is comprehensive, covering the study of media and its intersection with culture, through an in-depth look at each of the major mediums, then content considerations, economics and ethics issues related to the mass media.

This text seems accurate. I didn't find glaring errors of fact in my reading. Though, as I will mention later in my review, many of the examples used in the text are now several years outdated, when more recent examples or case studies would be more relatable to a youthful college audience.

This is one area where I find some difficulty with the book -- as is the case with every text of this type. The world of media is ever-changing and fast-changing. The historical information about the invention, early adoption, and improvements to the mediums of mass communication (books, newspapers, radio, television, etc.) are fine. A few of the examples and case studies used to describe events related to the media feel outdated. This is most apparent in Chapters 1 and 2 on Media and Culture and Media Effects. Examples from 2010 and 2011, are not relative to college freshmen in 2016 who were in middle-school and probably not paying attention when these things happened. Therefore, the longevity of this text is limited, unless it is updated-revised at least every third year.

The author's writing style is informative and engaging. While the writing is clear and understandable, the chapters often get too deep and try to cover anything and everything in a particular content area-- or sub-chapter, when a couple statements and one case study would suffice.

I found the chapter formatting, writing style and narrative flow to be consistent from chapter to chapter.

Here, the text shines. First, it is broken into chapters that are easily identifiable and segment the content nicely. Within each chapter are several sub-chapters that allow readers to read and absorb material in smaller chunks. This will be helpful to the learning styles of younger people today.

For the most part, I agree with the author's organization and flow. My only thought, and it's just an opinion, is: Chapter 2 on Media Effects should be moved to Chapter 14, so it comes after the major media categories and then the economics of the media, and just before the ethics and law of media. To be fair, most mass media textbooks follow this same organization. When I teach the class, I always move the "effects" chapter to later in the semester, after I've discussed the media types, their history and development.

A second thought, I'd hold the footnoted source credits to the end of each chapter, or preferably to the end of the book. The sometimes very long list of footnoted sources between each sub-chapter stops the flow for readers that may wish to read a full chapter.

I downloaded the PDF version, and read that. I found the interface cumbersome. I wish paragraphs were indented. I wish it was easier to navigate from chapter to chapter or topic to topic without scrolling, scrolling, scrolling. I wish there was an easy way to get to a Table of Contents with one click, and then from there click topic-anchored reference points to skip to specific information sought.

I wish it had an index that had anchor links. I realize this would be a large undertaking to create and connect the links. But that would make searching and finding specific information easy and fast. If I was a college student studying for a chapter quiz or exam on the foundations of radio, I might like to scoot to the Index and click on Radio-Invention, or on Marconi and be led instantly to that content within the text.

And, probably an easy fix, I wish it was more evenly spaced. In my opinion, there should consistently be two spaces between sub-headed sections or sub-chapters. In most places in this text, a new, bolded subhead appears on the very next line under its preceding paragraph. This looks jammed and messy.

I have no problem with the grammar. It's clear, easy to follow, and written to be accessible to a college audience. I used the Gunning Fog Index to test several paragraphs throughout the text and found some of the writing aimed at an audience with 10-11 years of formal education, and in a few cases more than 15 years of education. The average of my selected readings came out at 12-13 years of education -- perfectly appropriate for a freshmen-level college course.

Other than my hope for some more recent case studies and examples, I find the text to be culturally relevant. A few of the examples mention MySpace, Napster and Kazaa as internet entities with which the audience should be familiar. In reality, today's college freshmen know almost nothing of these three internet terms. In my current Media and Society class, less than ten percent of the class had ever had a MySpace account. They had heard of MySpace, but really knew nothing. No one in the class knew about Napster or Kazaa first-hand... perhaps had heard of them in another class.

This text feels too long. This is a difficult thing. The author includes everything he feels needs to be discussed in each chapter. But it's too much for a college freshman-level class. Example: The chapter on Music is more than 50 pages long. While I agree college students should be able to read this much each week for a class, I'm confident they will not read this much. I believe the text could be condensed quite a bit while maintaining the content necessary to make it meaningful at the freshman level. It's a complete text, and would make a nice reference tool -- with better indexing and searching links within the body -- but it won't work at an entry level to the study of media. At my university, the "Media and Society" class is a 100-level course, used as a general education class that can fulfill a categorical credit-need for all students, not just Mass Communication majors. And we consider the class a "feeder" to the major, introducing students to the study of media and hopefully igniting an interest in students to consider a career in media, and therefore declare a Mass Communication major. This book, with its depth, might be more appropriate in an upper-vision media studies course.

Reviewed by Nick Marx, Assistant Professor, Colorado State University on 1/7/16

The text is a broad and comprehensive overview of all relevant forms of media today. Although this is a common organizational approach for survey textbooks of media, this particular volume utilizes it in a particularly clear and cogent manner. ... read more

The text is a broad and comprehensive overview of all relevant forms of media today. Although this is a common organizational approach for survey textbooks of media, this particular volume utilizes it in a particularly clear and cogent manner. Instructors approaching media and culture from a mass comm/journalism standpoint are much likelier to find this text useful than are instructors who approach media and culture from a perspective emphasizing critical/cultural studies, historical poetics, and/or aesthetics.

Content is accurate and strikes appropriately diplomatic tones where contentious issues might arise that concern social and cultural power.

The text is quite relevant for the most part, but by the very nature of its subject matter will undoubtedly require updates every few years. Framing the intro of the "Future of Mass Media" chapter with a specific device--the iPad--rather than the set of cultural protocols such devices foster, for example, might prove to be one area where instructors redirect conversations after the next new device inevitably cycles through.

The text is lucid and easy to follow. The book is ideal for introductory-level courses, but is likely too survey-oriented for courses beyond that level.

The text is consistent in structure, tone, and subject matter.

Here the book really excels at guiding students through a programmatic approach to studying media. Each section of history/description is followed by useful discussion prompts and activities, easily lending itself to course adoption.

The book flows logically. Some medium-specific chapters might arguably be collapsed into others, but their separation provides instructors with a good range of options for organizing lesson plans as they wish rather than having to proceed sequentially.

The text is a cleanly organized PDF, but is quite cumbersome to navigate internally. At 700+ pages, there's no table of contents and little in the PDF that allows for quick and easy browsing without intense scrolling. I'd recommend a hyperlinked TOC and some mechanism that affords instructors/students the freedom to teach/read in a modular, not linear, fashion.

The book is very clean and free of any obvious errors.

The book appropriately qualifies and focuses on the US media context, drawing on a good diversity of examples throughout.

Reviews prior to 2016 are for a previous edition.

Reviewed by Robert Kerr, Professor, University of Oklahoma on 1/12/15

This book devotes almost 800 pages to achieving an impressive level of comprehensiveness, considering the vast subject material upon which it focuses. Moving from Gutenberg’s 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, through the... read more

This book devotes almost 800 pages to achieving an impressive level of comprehensiveness, considering the vast subject material upon which it focuses. Moving from Gutenberg’s 15th-century invention of the movable type printing press, through the beginning of the contemporary media age launched by the introduction of the telegraph in the mid 19th century, on into the explosive era opened with the beginnings of wireless communication, and ultimately into the revolution of Internet communication that by 2008 meant that U.S. households were consuming 3.6 zettabytes of information annually, the equivalent of a seven-foot-foot tall stack of books that covered the entire nation and represented a 350 percent increase from just three decades previously. This book manages to cover that remarkable series of media developments, and actually a good bit more, while keeping it all in broader context and without getting bogged down in the tedium of too much minutia from any one topic area.

This reviewer came across no errors of fact nor any pattern of bias in presentation.

The author of any text on this subject is faced with the challenge of achieving up-to-date content on a subject that explodes with new developments faster than any static text could ever stay fully up to date on for long. This text addresses that challenge by focusing on presenting a fully, dynamic framework that is so fully developed that it provides readers with a quite useful and enduring framework for considering crucial issues of media and culture in a manner that should give it a considerable shelf life. That framework is designed to help readers understand not only today’s media landscape but to consider what may be ahead for that landscape in terms of the future of media and culture.

The text breaks down relevant concepts and terminology with lucid, accessible prose so that even readers at the most introductory level should be able to always understand the discussion. Throughout the text, it very clearly helps readers think about each concept and related elements very clearly and in context that illuminates their significance.

This book’s use of terminology and framework is remarkably consistent. The author clearly has an instinctive, unified understanding of the essential dynamics driving the media world as it has evolved, exists today, and is unfolding going forward, and consistently discusses all topics in a context that never loses connection with that broad, fluid picture.

Chapters are organized into small modules, short subsections that by and large can stand alone and could be reorganized as an instructor might find more useful for the purposes of particular courses. Each chapter and each subsection includes highly useful learning objectives, key takeaways, and exercises, links to source materials and end-of-chapter assessments.

The book begins with a thorough overview that takes the reader quickly through a multifaceted assessment of the relationship between media and culture. With that foundation established, it moves into discussion of what is understood about the complex subject of media effects. Then it moves into narrower topics within the broader view considered so far, moving on to discussions of books, newspapers, magazines, music, radio, movies, and television, and then on to more recent developments such as electronic games, the Internet and social media. Then it steps back again to consider broader media influences such as advertising/PR, the role of economics in shaping the nature of mass media, ethical considerations, and government influence, before concluding with a substantial discussion of the future of mass media. The final chapter very effectively brings together the many strands of discussion from preceding chapters and synergizes them with a forward looking discussion of what the media future may hold. A table of contents within the book pdf itself would be helpful, as would content outlines at the beginning of each chapter. However, each chapter does contain very good breakdown highlights of each subsection’s learning objectives, key takeaways, and exercises, as well as extensive links to source materials and end-of-chapter assessments.

There do not seem to be any interface problems. The book is easy to navigate and the images/charts are displayed clearly, without distortion. Display features are presented quite distinctly and effectively throughout and should present readers with not distractions or confusion. The layout is somewhat visually plain, compared to many websites and even many traditional textbooks with more graphically elaborate designs, but the simple layout is easy to negotiate. The number of images/charts is not abundant, but is sufficient.

Grammar is used correctly throughout -- including use of the term “media” as a plural noun, which even too many academics have begun to use incorrectly as a singular term. It even includes an explanation of why it is incorrect to make that term singular, despite its popular usage in such manner. The text is very well written throughout, lively and to the point, with an easy flow that should enable readers to move through it almost effortlessly.

Over the course of this 761-page book, the reader is taken through an extensive range of discussion examples that span a multitude of races, ethnicities, and backgrounds. This reviewer did not detect any instances of cultural insensitivity or offensiveness.

This book is written well enough to be of general interest as a stand-alone read, apart from the context of its use as a textbook.

Reviewed by Doug Trouten, Professor, University of Northwestern - St. Paul on 7/15/14

The text covers all of the major forms of media and significant related topics (advertising, media economics, ethics, etc.). While the text lacks a dedicated chapter for journalism, this topic is covered at length in some of the other chapters. No... read more

The text covers all of the major forms of media and significant related topics (advertising, media economics, ethics, etc.). While the text lacks a dedicated chapter for journalism, this topic is covered at length in some of the other chapters. No glossary or index is provided.

Content is accurate and free of glaring errors. Although written in a personal, conversational tone, the text avoids obvious personal bias.

The content is up-to-date, including discussion of social media and references to recent works of media criticism. The rapid development of new media makes it likely that some of the material in this (or any) book will quickly seem dated, but the most time-sensitive material is confined to a few chapters, which should facilitate future updates.

The book is written in clear, easy-to-understand language that should appeal to today's college-age reader.

The text shows good consistency, introducing key ideas early and using them to facilitate understanding of material covered in subsequent chapters.

The chapters are clearly divided into subsections, each with clearly stated learning objectives, key takeaways and learning exercises. Most subsections could stand on their own, and chapters focusing on specific forms of mass media could easily be rearranged or skipped if desired.

The topics are presented in a logical fashion. After introducing basic ideas about media and culture and media effects, the text moves to discussion of various forms of media in chronological orders, and ends with chapters on various mass media applications and issues, such as advertising, public relations, ethics and government regulation.

The text is a basic PDF, with fixed line breaks that limit display options. Most URLs are live links. Footnote numbers and references to chapter sections look like links but are not, which may confuse some readers. A format better-suited for e-readers would be welcome.

The text strives to be culturally neutral, and should not offend any particular group of readers. The text clearly focuses on the U.S. media context, and acknowledges this limitation early on.

This is an impressively comprehensive overview of mass communication, written in a clear and engaging manner. Discussion questions and exercises are helpful resources for classroom use. A glossary, index and more flexible e-format would make this text even more useful. This text is a welcome addition to the field, and will serve students and teachers well.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Media and Culture
• Chapter 2: Media Effects
• Chapter 3: Books
• Chapter 4: Newspapers
• Chapter 5: Magazines
• Chapter 6: Music
• Chapter 7: Radio
• Chapter 8: Movies
• Chapter 9: Television
• Chapter 10: Electronic Games and Entertainment
• Chapter 11: The Internet and Social Media
• Chapter 12: Advertising and Public Relations
• Chapter 14: Ethics of Mass Media
• Chapter 15: Media and Government
• Chapter 16: The Future of Mass Media

Ancillary Material

• University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

About the Book

According to the author, the world did not need another introductory text in mass communication. But the world did need another kind of introductory text in mass communication, and that is how Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication was birthed.

The only question was: What would be the purpose of another introductory mass communication text?

Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication was written to squarely emphasize media technology. The author believes that an introduction to mass communication text should be a compelling, historical narrative sketching the *ongoing evolution* of media technology and how that technology shapes and is shaped by culture — and that is what he set out to deliver with his new textbook.

Today's students are immersed in media technology. They live in a world of cell phones, smart phones, video games, iPods, laptops, Facebook, Twitter, FourSquare, and more. They fully expect that new technology will be developed tomorrow. Yet students often lack an historical perspective on media technology. They lack knowledge of the social, political and economic forces that shape media technology. This is not knowledge for knowledge's sake. It is knowledge that can help them understand, comprehend, appreciate, anticipate, shape and control media technology.

With this focus, Understanding Media and Culture becomes an appropriate title. Indeed, the title has particular significance. Marshall McLuhan's Understanding Media is a key text in media studies. Written in the 1960s, Understanding Media was the subject of intense debates that continue to this day. Its central message was that the technology of media — not their content — was their most important feature. In a typically pithy phrase, McLuhan said, "The medium is the message." The title, Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication , situates the introductory text in a large, engrossing theoretical conversation.

The goal is to adopt a textbook that will support and complement your teaching of this course. Understanding Media and Culture: An Introduction to Mass Communication will support an engaging and interesting course experience for students that will not only show them the powerful social, political and economic forces will affect the future of media technology, but will challenge students to do their part in shaping that future.

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• Part II Preface
• Career Resources Site

Chapter 1: Understanding Mass Media, Convergence, and the Importance of Media Literacy

Chapter recap, practice quiz, recommended readings.

Chapter 1 sets the foundation for the rest of the book by differentiating mass communication from other types of communication, explaining the importance of convergence, and offering the tools you need to become media literate.

Chapter Objectives:

• Discuss what mass media convergence means and why it is important.
• Explain the differences between interpersonal communication and mass communication.
• Explain why an unorthodox definition of mass communication makes the term especially relevant in today’s media environment.
• Explain the meaning and importance of culture’s relationship with the mass media.
• Analyze the ways in which the mass media affect our everyday lives.
• Explain what the term “media literacy” means.
• List the key principles involved in becoming media-literate.

Introducing Media Convergence

• Media are the means of delivering messages to us. In the past, messages were delivered through a particular medium, such as a vinyl record or a DVD. Accessing that content required a device designed to retrieve the content from that medium, such as a record or DVD player. Media convergence happens when the content of the messages is no longer tied to a particular medium, and therefore requires no designated device to retrieve it. Music, for example, traditionally was distributed via records, cassette tapes, and CDs and required specific devices to decode the medium used. Digital music, however, allows access to songs through any number of devices, including cell phones, tablets, and computers. (3-5)
• This idea of convergence is driving the changes in media industries and in their audiences. These ideas will be developed in more depth throughout the book. (3-5)

Introducing Mass Communication

• The idea of a mass audience appears problematic in light of audience fragmentation, which is dividing audiences into smaller and smaller groups. (5-6)
• The industrial nature of the mass communication process distinguishes it from other forms of communication and refers to the ways in which industries work together to create mass messages in order to reach mass audiences. (6)
• Mass communication is one of several forms of communication, including interpersonal communication and mediated interpersonal communication. (7)
• The word “communication” refers to people interacting in ways that at least one of the parties understands as messages. (7)
• The source is the originator of the message. (8-10)
• Encoding is the process by which the source translates thoughts and ideas so that they can be perceived by the human senses—in this case, primarily sight and sound, though encoding may also involve smell, taste, and touch. (8-9)
• The transmitter performs the physical activity of actually spreading—distributing—the message. (8-9)
• Channels are the pathways through which the transmitter sends all features of the message, whether they involve sight, sound, smell, taste, or touch. (8-9)
• Decoding is the reverse of the encoding process—it is the process by which the receiver translates the source’s thoughts and ideas to assign them meaning. (8-9)
• The receiver is the person or organization that gets the message. (8-9)
• Feedback occurs when the receiver responds to the message with what the sender perceives as another message. (8-9)
• Noise is any element that interferes with the delivery of the message. (9)
• One way to understand the various kinds of communication is to compare interpersonal communication, mediated interpersonal communication, and mass communication. (Table 1.1, p. 9)
• Mass communication is the industrialized production and widescale distribution of messages through technological devices. (10)
• Mass media are the technological vehicles through which mass communication takes place. (11)
• Mass media outlets send out messages via mass media. (11)
• Mass media firms create commodities with the potential to circulate to huge numbers of people on an array of platforms. (10-11)

Mass Media and Convergence

• Media convergence can be thought of as consisting of the three Cs: content, corporations, and computers. (12)
• An analog is a physical reproduction of content, such as a cassette tape holding a song. Digital turns the song into binary digits, and in turn allows the song to appear on CD. Convergence allows the songs, or digital content, to be accessed by different media. (13)

Mass Media, Culture, and Society

• How people use the mass media:
• Enjoyment refers to the personal gratification an individual gets from the media. (14)
• Companionship, including parasocial interaction. (14)
• Surveillance—through media surveillance, individuals learn about the world beyond their immediate neighborhood. (15)
• Interpretation—media are the source of explanations for what happens in the world. (15)
• Via the multiple uses of media content, particularly those that enable interactivity. (16)
• Mass communication has many impacts on culture and society.  (16)
• Mass media present ideas of the culture in three broad and related ways:
• The mass media identify and discuss codes of acceptable behavior within the society and how to talk about them. (18)
• The mass media tell people what and who count in our world and why. (18)
• The mass media help people to understand themselves and their connection with—or disconnection from—others. (18)
• Criticisms of mass media’s relation to culture include:
• The use of stereotypes reinforces prejudices and political ideologies that reflect the beliefs of those who have the most power in culture. (19)
• Concerns about a diminishment of cultural quality. (19)
• Encouragement of political and economic manipulation of audiences. (19)
• Some argue that these criticisms overlook how audience members respond to different media in different ways, not simply accepting but also often modifying and rejecting. (19)

Media Literacy

• Six characteristics of a media-literate person (20):
• Knowledgeable about the influences that guide media organizations,
• Up-to-date on media-related political issues,
• Sensitive to media content as a means of learning about culture,
• Sensitive to the ethical dimensions of media activities,
• Knowledgeable about scholarship regarding media effects,
• Able to enjoy media materials in a sophisticated way.
• Six principles of media literacy (20-22):
• The media construct our individual realities. (21)
• Media are influenced by industrial pressures. (21-22)
• Media are influenced by political pressures. (22)
• Media are influenced by format. (22)
• Audiences are active recipients of the media. (22)
• Media tell us about who we are as a society. (22)

Media Literacy Tools (See Figure 1.4 on page 21; also 23-25)

• CONSIDER AUTHORSHIP  – Who created this message, and why are they sending it?  (23)
• EVALUATE THE AUDIENCE –  Who are the intended targets of these media materials? How might people understand these materials similarly and differently?  (23-24)
• DETERMINE THE INSTITUTIONAL PURPOSE –  Why is the content being sent?  (24)
• ANALYZE THE CONTENT –  What values, lifestyles, and points of view are represented in (or omitted from) this message?   (24-25)
• IDENTIFY THE CREATIVE TECHNIQUES –  What creative techniques are being used to attract my attention?  (25)

Benefits of a Media-Literate Perspective (25-26)

Media literacy allows for a more sophisticated reading into the power of media industries, processes, and impact on culture. Media literacy allows for raising questions about:

• Media conglomerate control of media channels,
• Portrayals of sex and violence,
• Consequences of audience segmentation,
• Global media, cultural values, and free speech.
• Learning media literacy and unlearning commercial messages http://techcrunch.com/2011/06/14/keen-on-eli-pariser-1/
• Amazon has built a subscription launchpad with Amazon Prime http://techcrunch.com/2016/04/18/amazon-has-built-a-subscription-launchpad-with-amazon-prime/
• It's Not Film. It's Not TV. It's Convergence. Here's What It's All About http://www.indiewire.com/article/its-not-film-its-not-tv-its-convergence-heres-what-its-all-about-20140926
• Henry Jenkins on “Spreadable Media,” why fans rule, and why “The Walking Dead” lives http://www.deepmediaonline.com/deepmedia/2013/01/henry-jenkins-on-spreadable-media.html
• Social Media Literacy: The 5 Key Concepts http://www.edutopia.org/blog/social-media-five-key-concepts-stacey-goodman
• Reasons for Media Convergence http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring03/Mallard/reasons.html
• The Good, Bad and Ugly of Media Convergence http://insights.wired.com/profiles/blogs/the-good-bad-and-ugly-of-media-convergence
• Convergence Is The Future Of Marketing http://www.forbes.com/sites/marketshare/2012/03/01/convergence-is-the-future-of-marketing/#5fe054d9af67

Chapter 2: Making Sense of Research on Media Effects and Media Culture

This chapter provides an overview of the different ways researchers try to explain mass media activities and their effects on audiences and culture.

• Identify and explain what mass media research is.
• Recognize and discuss the mainstream approaches to mass media research.
• Recognize the shift from mainstream approaches to critical approaches.
• Recognize and discuss the critical approaches to mass media research.
• Recognize and discuss the cultural studies approaches to mass media research.
• Harness your media literacy skills to understand and evaluate the media’s presence and influence in your life.

The Nature of Mass Media Research

• Mass communication researchers have been grappling for decades with the most important social issues involving media. Knowledge of mass communication research traditions and discoveries is crucial to developing media literacy. (31)
• Research is the application of a systematic method to solve a problem or understand it better than in the past. (31)
• Mass media research, then, entails the use of systematic methods to understand or solve problems related to the mass media. It asks about the role mass media play in improving or degrading the relationships, values, and ideals of society and the people who make up that society. This chapter addresses society’s bottom line, not a company’s bottom line. (31)
• Early critical studies scholars explored the ideas behind a mass society. Did widespread media allow for a greater sense of community? Some scholars, such as Dewey, saw these media as enabling democratic participation and the formation of a common notion of society. (32-33)
• Others feared propaganda, or messages designed to change people’s attitudes and behaviors. (33-5)
• Interest moved to the role journalists played in their selection of news to cover. Lippmann raised the notion of “agenda setting,” the idea that media create “the ideas in our heads.” (33)
• The magic bullet or hypodermic needle approach suggested that propaganda affected everyone in the same way at the same time. This idea was quickly modified due to its oversimplification of audience responses. (34-35)
•  The Payne Fund studies employed a range of techniques to examine the question of the impact of violent films on young people. They found that youngsters’ reactions to movies were not uniform. Rather, they depended on key social and psychological differences among children. (35-36)
• In the 1940s, researchers put forth a new theory that  placed social relations—or the interactions among people—alongside individual social and psychological differences and the part those relations played in the way individuals interpreted media messages. (36)
• Paul Lazarsfeld and other Columbia sociologists developed the two-step flow model of media influence. This model states that media messages are diffused in two stages: (1) media content is picked up by people who use the media frequently and (2) these people act as opinion leaders when discussing that content with others. Those others are then influenced by the media in a way that is one step removed from the original content. (36-37 and Figure 2.3 on p. 37)
• Lazarsfeld and his associates developed the concept of an active audience, meaning that people are not simply passive receivers of media messages. (38)
• Another outgrowth of the Columbia School research is the uses and gratifications model, which examines how people use media products to meet their needs and interests. This model of analysis maintains that it is as important to know what people do with media as it is to know what media do to people. (38)
• Additional research approaches confirmed the limited effects of media on audiences:
• Further analysis (Carl Hovland’s naturalistic experiments summarized as The American Soldier) emerged from the Second World War era and showed that even materials specifically designed to persuade people would succeed only under limited circumstances and with only certain types of people. This area of inquiry is called limited effects research. (39)
• Findings indicate that, under normal circumstances, where all aspects of the communication environment could not be equal, the mass media’s ability to change people’s attitudes and behavior on controversial issues was minimal. (39-40)

Consolidating the Mainstream Approach

In the 1950s, researchers began building on previous findings. These later approaches can be divided into three areas of study: (1) opinion and behavior change, (2) what people learn from media, and (3) the motivations and applications of media use. (40-43)

• In terms of opinion and behavior change, researchers look at the effects of TV violence on children and of sexually explicit material for adults. Family, social setting, and personality have a bearing on the results. Heavy exposure may lead to desensitization. (40)
• In terms of what people learn from media, researchers have found that children can learn basic skills such as vocabulary. Media content, in theory, enables adults to participate in a democratic society; however, media content is also highly selective. Priming is the process through which the media affect how people evaluate media content. Not all people pay attention to media, nor does everyone have access to media content. This lack of access results in a knowledge gap, with those with access receiving information faster and earlier than other population segments. (40-43)
• In terms of the applications and motivations for people’s media use, researchers draw on uses and gratifications research and sometimes media effects to develop answers to the question, “Why do people enjoy programming like radio soap operas and quiz shows?” A serious answer arises with the digital divide, that is, a separation between those who have knowledge access and those who do not due to limited education or income. (43-45; see Figure 2.4 on p. 45)

The Rise of Critical Approaches

Although mainstream approaches to research have laid a strong foundation for communication research, some scholars recognize two persistent problems: (45)

•  One problem is the research stresses change rather than continuity. By stressing change over continuity, critics contend that much of mainstream research focuses on whether a change will occur as a result of media exposure, ignoring the possibility that the many important effects of the media have to do not with  changing  people but with encouraging them to  continue  certain actions or views on life. Although outlooks or behavior may not be changed by media content directly, they may be reinforced by it. (45-46)
• The other problem is its emphasis on the active audience member in the media environment, rather than the power of larger social forces controlling that media environment. By focusing so much on the role of the individual, mainstream researchers are accused of ignoring the impact of social power. What ought to be studied, critics say, is how powerful groups come to influence the most widespread media images in ways that help them stay in power. (46)
• “Critical theory” is the term used to describe these points of departure from mainstream media research. (47)
• The Frankfurt School of researchers focused on the cultural implications of Marxism, or the belief that the direction of history would eventually result in labor’s overthrow of capitalism and, in turn, the more equal distribution of resources in society. Scholars wrote about the corrosive impact of capitalism on culture, emphasizing the ability of the mass media to control people’s worldviews. (46-47)
• Co-optation is used to explain how capitalism takes potentially revolutionary ideas and tames them to express capitalist ideals. (47)
• Political economy theorists, in contrast, focus on the link between economics and culture. They ask when and how the economic structures of society and media systems reflect the political interests of society’s rich and powerful. Most critical work in this area focuses on how institutional and organizational relationships create requirements for media firms that lead them to create and circulate certain types of material over others. McChesney raised the issue of media conglomeration as an exacerbating and alarming trend. Concerns are raised over corporate ownership and suppression of certain topics of reporting. (47-48 and Figure 2.5 on p. 49)
• Some political economists who are concerned about the corrosive impact of U.S. media content on other cultures study cultural colonialism—the exercise of control over an area or people by a dominant power not so much through force of arms as by surrounding the weaker countries with cultural materials that reflect values and beliefs that support the interests of the dominant power. (48-49)
• Cultivation studies researchers focus less on industry relationships and more on information about the work that people pick up from media portrayals. It differs from mainstream research by taking the following approach: when media systematically portray certain populations in unfavorable ways, the ideas that mainstream audiences pick up about those people help certain groups in society keep power over the groups they denigrate. Further, George Gerbner argued that TV violence causes people to feel more strongly that the world is a scary, mean place. (49-50)

Cultural Studies

• Cultural studies scholars often start with the idea that media presents their audiences with technologies and texts and that audiences find meaning in them. These scholars examine what it means to “make meaning” of such technologies and texts and what consequences this has for audiences. (51)
• Approaches to cultural studies include:
• Historical, which ask questions about media and the past.
• Anthropological, which explore how people use media in different settings.
• Linguistic and literary, which incorporate multiple ways of reading media texts. Though complicated, the linguistic and literary approaches question where meaning is created in texts and understand that texts are polysemous, that is, open to multiple readings. (51-53)

Using Media Research to Develop Media Literacy Skills

• Media research relates closely to media literacy. The history of mass media research provides students with tools to figure out three key ideas a media-literate person must know: (53-57)
• Where you stand with respect to the effects of media on society. (54)
• How to make sense of discussions and arguments about media effects. (54)
• Part of becoming media literate involves taking an informed stand on why the media are important. New ideas on the subject are emerging constantly, and it helps to stay current with press coverage of media developments or academic journal articles in this area. (54)
• The five key considerations in making sense of media effects analysis are: (54-56)
• Are the questions the researcher is asking interesting and important?
• Into what research tradition does the study fall?
• How good is the research design?
• How convincing is the analysis?
• What do you wish the researchers would do next in their research?
• How to get involved in research that can be used to explore concerns you might have about mass media. (56-57)
• See Table 2.1 (p. 55-56) for an overview of the different theories used in media research. This table summarizes the key research efforts explained in this chapter.
• Pants-wearing sponge blamed for kids' poor attention spans http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44460161/ns/health-childrens_health/t/pants-wearing-sponge-blamed-kids-poor-attention-spans/#.V7NiQaJv-I5
• Facebook Tinkers With Users' Emotions in News Feed Experiment, Stirring Outcry http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/30/technology/facebook-tinkers-with-users-emotions-in-news-feed-experiment-stirring-outcry.html
• Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks http://www.pnas.org/content/111/24/8788.full

Chapter 3: The Business of Media

This chapter provides an overview of how the media industries identify and address audiences; how they use genres to group content; and how they produce, distribute, exhibit, and finance content.

• Recognize how mass media personnel consider the audience an integral part of business concerns.
• Describe the primary genres of the materials created by various mass media industries.
• Identify and discuss the process of producing, distributing, and exhibiting materials in mass media industries.
• Explain the way media firms finance the production, distribution, and exhibition of media materials.
• Harness your media literacy skills to evaluate what media forms mean to you as a media consumer.

Identifying an Audience for Mass Media Content

• Media practitioners carefully consider the following questions:
• How should we think about and define our audience?
• Will the material we create to attract that audience generate adequate revenues?
• Was our target audience attracted to our products? Why or why not? (62)
• Media firms think about members of their audience differently than the members think about themselves. Media professionals think of people primarily as consumers of media materials and other products.
• The goal of audience targeting is to deliver audiences to advertisers in order to generate adequate revenue for their media enterprise.
• They construct their audiences in four broad ways: demographics, psychographics, lifestyle categories, and behavioral information. (63-66)
• Demographic indicators include factors such as age, sex, income, occupation, ethnicity, and race.
• Psychographics group people by attitudes, personality types, or motivations. (see Figure 3.2)
• The lifestyle categories approach considers different activities that mark people as different from others.
• Behavioral information tracks user activity within a media firm’s cross-platform products (websites, apps, even physical locations).
• Companies combine these approaches to do personalized targeting, offering advertisers the ability to reach people who fit specific profiles.
• Figuring out whether the content that the company puts out is a success with the existing audience through an analysis of existing data can be simple or difficult, depending on the mass medium and the specific questions asked. (67-68)

Determining a Genre for Mass Media Content

• Media content is organized into five major categories, called genres, and includes entertainment, news, information, education, and advertising. (68)
• The entertainment genre follows a formula that includes a setting, typical characters, and patterns of action. The primary concern for creators of entertainment is audience enjoyment. (68)
• The entertainment genre can be further divided into festivals, dramas, gaming, and comedy. (68; see Figure 3.3 on p. 69)
• Genres also can be combined. A combination of two genres is called a hybrid. Dramedy, for example, mixes comedy and drama.
• The news genre involves telling stories about events happening in the world around us. Most news stories are grounded in objectivity, strive for accuracy, and are written by journalists. (71)
• News can be further divided into several subgenres, recognizable as hard news, investigative reports, editorials, and soft news. (73)
• The information genre relies on facts that reveal something about the world. Information includes content obtained through searching databases. (76-7)
• The education genre includes content crafted to teach people. Textbooks and instructional materials of all types fall into this category. (77-78)
• The advertisement genre includes messages aimed at directing favorable attention to goods and services and includes informational ads, hard-sell ads, and soft-sell ads. (78-79)
• A newcomer to a media industry needs to understand the various genres that characterize media content and the necessity of working within the formulaic limitations of the genres.

Mixing Genres in a Convergent Media System

• In all mass media industries, organizations carry out five primary activities: production, distribution, exhibition, audience research, and finance. (80, see Figure 3.6)
• Production for the mass media means the creation of materials (also called media content) for distribution through one or more mass media vehicles. (81)
• A mass media production firm, like The Washington Post Co., is a firm that creates materials for distribution through one or more mass media vehicles. (81)
• The production process typically requires the work of both administrative and creative personnel (either on-staff creative workers or freelance creative workers). (81)
• Talent guilds, such as the Writers Guild of America, negotiate labor agreements with major production firms. (82)
• Because the production process is so complex, the creative labor is typically a collaborative activity, and this positions a group or a company as the “author” of the material. (82 and Figure 3.7)
• Distribution is the delivery of the produced material to the point where it will be shown to its intended audience; distribution is an activity that takes place out of public view. (83)
• Without distribution, a production firm’s media product would literally go nowhere; some large media firms conduct distribution as well as production, whereas others rely on independent distribution firms to carry out this function. (83-84)
• A powerful distributor can ensure that the media products it carries will end up in the best locations of the best exhibitors and presented to the best audience; without distribution, production is of no use. (84)
• Exhibition is the activity of presenting mass media materials to audiences for viewing or purchase. (84)
• Shelf space is the amount of area or time available for presenting products to consumers. (84)
• Powerful distributors are able to negotiate the best space and the best time for the exhibition of their clients’ products. (85)
• Large media firms, like major book publishing companies, are in a position to negotiate with exhibitors for the best space or time and often provide trade incentives and cooperative advertising deals to gain influence with exhibitors. (86)
• In some media industries, major firms consolidate their marketplace strength by owning elements of all three functions, combining production, distribution, and exhibition under one corporate roof. This combination of all three functions is called vertical integration, an important strategy in the constant attempt to reduce risk. (86 and Figure 3.8 on p. 87)
• Financing mass media content can be divided into two categories: money to fund new production and money to pay for already completed products. (87)
• Funding new productions:
• Borrowing money from an organization, usually a bank. (87)
• Borrowing money (typically very large amounts) from an investment bank or syndicate that often specializes in loaning large sums to companies in particular industries. (88)
• Some media firms raise money by means of stock offerings that encourage investment in their operations. (88)
• Some media firms rely on venture capitalists that specialize in investing in startup or nonpublic (no stock offerings) firms. (88-89)
• Following an investment by venture capitalists, the potential profit of a media firm may become so great that it takes action to issue an initial public offering (IPO) of stock. (89)
• Funding when production is already complete. This concerns the generation of profits—the amount of money brought in by completed products (revenue) minus expenses.
• Direct sales, allowing the purchaser to buy, and therefore own, an item directly from a producer, distributor, or exhibitor. (89)
• License fees, allowing the purchaser to use an item, usually for a specified period of time and for specified purposes; the producer retains ultimate control of the item. (89)
• Rentals, allowing a consumer the right to read, view, or listen to an item for a specified period of time, after which the item is returned. (89)
• Usage fees based on the number of times that an item is employed (or used) by a consumer. (89)
• Subscriptions, or the amount of money charged for providing a media product or service on a regular basis. (89-90)
• Advertising, allowing a company to purchase space or time on mass media for the purpose of displaying an ad for a product or service. (90)
• An additional concern for media practitioners is government regulation. (see Chapter 5)

Media Literacy and the Business of Media (90-92)

• Knowing about the production, distribution, and exhibition processes helps one be a more aware consumer of mass media materials.  
• Knowing about the means through which media products are financed, a media-literate person can influence sources of production revenue.
• Knowing how media firms construct and target their intended audiences, a media-literate person can influence decisions that are potentially objectionable or arguably disruptive in some way.
• In other words, a media-literate person has some potential leverage over decisions made by media firms and their sources of financing. The crucial issues, of course, lie in first understanding how this complex system works and then developing effective communication strategies of your own in order to influence it.
• We know people read news on their phones. But from what sources? http://www.niemanlab.org/2016/05/we-know-people-read-news-on-their-phones-but-from-what-sources/
• Place-shifting: challenges present and future paint a rough picture for innovation http://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2006/07/placeshifting/
• How to Use Psychographic Data in Your Marketing http://susangilbert.com/use-psychographic-data-online-marketing/
• How Facebook's Custom Audiences Won Over Adland http://adage.com/article/digital/facebook-s-custom-audiences-won-adland/297700/
• ‘Deadpool’ Star Ryan Reynolds Says the Low Budget Equals More Freedom http://screenrant.com/deadpool-movie-2016-ryan-reynolds-budget-test-footage/
• Case Studies for Nielsen Segmentation http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/solutions/segmentation/case-studies.html
• Marketing a Film http://www.filmeducation.org/pdf/film/TouchingTheVoid.pdf

Chapter 4: Financing and Shaping the Media: Advertising, Public Relations, and Marketing Communications

This chapter explores how advertising, public relations, and marketing activities shape the activities of the media industries.

• Describe the roles that advertising, public relations, and marketing communications play in the media system.
• Describe the kinds of firms involved in these activities and what they do.
• Analyze the process of producing and creating ads and public relations material.
• Explain how advertising, public relations, and marketing communications relate to convergence and what that means for the media system.
• Discuss debates between critics and defenders of these businesses regarding topics such as commercialism, hidden persuasion, and targeting communication.

The Advertising Industry

• Advertising is the activity of explicitly paying for media space or time in order to direct favorable attention to certain products or services. (96)
• Advertising pays for the time or space they receive, clearly states its presence, and involves persuasion.
• Advertising spending is a multibillion-dollar industry. (see Table 4.1, on p. 97)  
• Advertising agencies specialize in the creation of ads for placement on media. (98)
• Agency holding companies own multiple agencies. (98; see Table 4.2 for the top seven holding companies.)
• Advertising agencies can be divided along four dimensions: (1) business-to-business agencies versus consumer agencies, (2) general agencies versus specialty agencies, (3) traditional agencies versus direct-marketing agencies, and (4) agency networks versus stand-alone firms. (98-100, see Table 4.3 for the top ten agency networks)
• The three basic functions of an ad agency are (1) creative persuasion, (2) market research, and (3) media planning and buying. (100)
• Production in the advertising industry (100-103):
• Production activities are closely monitored by clients and most prominently involve creative personnel and market researchers, who help guide the creative work to reach the targeted market segment.
• Market research creates portraits of society and identifies potential market segments.
• The sales pitch is a message designed to show how a product can “solve a problem” for the identified target audience.
• Branding involves the creation of a specific image of a product that makes it stand out in the marketplace.
• Agencies position products by relating brands to the specific interests and lifestyle of the targeted segment.
• Distribution in the advertising industry (103-105):
• Media fragmentation has made the placement of ads an increasingly complex and challenging agency function.
• Agencies rely on audience research firms for the specific data used to target audiences and to place ads in an effective and efficient way.
• Research firms develop psychographic audience data that link demographic categories to personality traits of the targeted audience.
• Research firms also provide lifestyle information about particular audience segments.
• In-store media refers to the various ads that consumers see in retail stores.
• Media planners typically want to know the following: (1) What is an outlet’s reach with respect to the target audience and (2) how efficient is the outlet in reaching the target compared to other outlets? (This is where cost per thousand, or CPM, comes into the decision making.)
• Media planners are also concerned about the environment—or the media content--surrounding the ads they place.
• Exhibition in the advertising industry (105-107):
• The strategy of the advertising campaign determines how particular ads are exhibited to potential consumers.
• Advertising conglomerates have developed cross-platform deals to reach an increasingly segmented audience.
• Location-based advertising sends ads and coupons to consumers based on their geographic location.
• An agency’s research division typically evaluates the success of a campaign by several research means, including the click-though analysis of consumer behavior on the Internet.
• It is difficult to measure the effectiveness of ad campaigns.
• Threats to traditional advertising (107-109):
• Consumer resistance to ad exposure—and their use of new technologies to avoid ads altogether—is worrisome for the industry. Native advertisements are a growing form of ad placement which mimics the format and style of the media vehicle in which the ad is placed.
• Agencies are attempting to make ads more relevant to the targeted segments.
• Agencies are using product placement and viral marketing (buzz marketing, environmental marketing) to get around consumer resistance to ads.

What Is Public Relations?

• Publicity is the practice of getting companies, people, and products mentioned in the media in order to get people interested in them. Public relations activities seek to create positive attitudes toward these products and to counter any potentially negative attitudes. (109-110)
• Public relations departments are part of media industries and many other industries, as well as government groups and not-for-profit organizations. (111)
• Although advertising activities are more recognizable to audiences, public relations activities attempt to be subtler. Also, whereas advertising is paid for (in terms of ad space, commercial slots, etc.), public relations activities typically are not paid for (e.g., public relations firms do not pay a newspaper for printing their press release). (110)
• Public relations practitioners engage in three types of activities: media relations, internal relations, and external relations. Media relations involve any activities that deal with media (i.e., answering calls from reporters). Internal relations involve presenting the company image to people working in the company. External relations involve presenting the company image to those outside the company. (111)
• Public relations firms also are part of agency holding companies. (See Table 4.4 on p. 112)
• Global reach is important to agency holding companies. (112)
• Prominent public relations activities fall under corporate communications, financial communications, health care, public affairs, and crisis management. (112; see Table 4.5 on p. 113 for examples of these types of activities)
• Production in the public relations industry (114-115):
• The press release is the most basic product of public relations.
• It is very important for public relations specialists to understand the work routines and needs of media specialists in order to influence media content.
• Distribution in the public relations industry (115-116):
• Public relations distribution is achieved by locating proper media outlets for the materials provided by public relations specialists.
• A variety of media technologies are used for the distribution of public relations materials.
• Exhibition in the public relations industry (116-117):
• Media outlets benefit from the “information subsidies” provided by the public relations industry.
• The placement of public relations materials in media outlets does not guarantee that the subsequent stories will be beneficial for the public relations specialist’s client.

The Rise of Marketing Communications (117-120)

• Integrated marketing communications (IMC) attempts to combine the activities of advertising and public relations in order to benefit a client.
• Branded entertainment involves associating a company or product with media activities in ways that are not as obviously intrusive as advertisements.
• Event marketing involves creating compelling circumstances that command attention in ways that are relevant to the product or firm.
• Event sponsorship involves companies paying to be associated with particular activities that their target audiences enjoy or value.
• Product placement takes place when a firm manages to insert its brand in a positive way into fiction or nonfiction content.
• Direct marketing uses media vehicles created by the marketer to send persuasive messages. Database marketing involves the construction of lists of customers and potential customers, which can be used to determine what those people might purchase in the future.
• Relationship marketing involves a determination by the firm to maintain long-term contact with its customers.

Advertising, Public Relations, and Convergence (120-121)

• Advertising, public relations, and IMC have a substantial impact on the media. By bringing these activities together, companies can expand their reach in getting their messages out.

Media Literacy Issues Related to Advertising and Public Relations

• Three key issues related to advertising:
• Advertising and commercialism: The buying and selling of items is a highly valued activity, and sales pitches appear everywhere. These messages, some say, encourage people to buy more than they need and are part of a hidden curriculum that people unconsciously accept without thinking about it. Other critics claim this influence isn’t as strong as detractors claim. (121-122)
• Critics claim that advertising targeting children is unethical because some children are unable to process the messages, and the advertising causes disagreements between parents and children. (122)
• Critics claim that advertising and public relations activities produce excess waste and pollution. (122)
• Advertising, public relations, and IMC maintain complicated relationships with the idea of “truth,” because these industries must always present the best possible image . Critics claim that even when these industries’ messages tell the truth, they still possibly can deceive their audiences. (122-124)
• These industries turn to self-regulation to prevent government interference with their activities.
• Targeting becomes another troublesome activity presented by these industries because in their search for desired audiences, they send out too many messages, and thus have access to an enormous amount of personal information.
• Media firms can attract marketers by offering selectability, or reaching specific individuals with desired characteristics through targeted content; accountability to advertisers, or showing how individuals responded to ads; and interactivity, or cultivating a positive relationship with an individual. (125-126)
• Critics claim that although this targeting of content to narrower and narrower audience segments might be beneficial to individuals, it creates a culture of separation that prevents people from learning about others and the world around them. (126-127)
• I'm Being Followed: How Google—and 104 Other Companies—Are Tracking Me on the Web http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2012/02/im-being-followed-how-google-151-and-104-other-companies-151-are-tracking-me-on-the-web/253758/
• The Digital Video Advertising Market http://www.journalism.org/2014/03/26/the-digital-video-advertising-market/
• Digital: Top Five Companies in Digital Advertising http://www.journalism.org/chart/digital-top-five-companies-in-digital-advertising-2/
• The Six Simple Principles of Viral Marketing http://www.practicalecommerce.com/articles/100366-viral-principles
• Interactive Content Can Save Content Marketing From The Dark Side http://techcrunch.com/2014/12/24/interactive-content-can-save-content-marketing-from-the-dark-side/
• Interactive Marketing: Target Your Customers In Real Time To Increase Sales http://www.forbes.com/sites/larrymyler/2015/10/14/interactive-marketing-target-your-customers-in-real-time-to-increase-sales/#789d9f0d4657

Chapter 5: Controls on Media Content:

Government regulation, self-regulation, and ethics.

This chapter provides an overview of the different ways that the government regulates media industries and the media industries regulate themselves, as well as the questions of ethics that arise in both cases.

• Explain the reasons for and the theories underlying media regulation.
• Identify and describe different types of media regulation.
• Analyze the struggles between citizens and regulatory agencies in the search for information.
• Discuss the ways in which media organizations self-regulate.
• Identify and evaluate ethical dilemmas facing media practitioners today.
• Harness your media literacy skills to comprehend how media regulation affects you as a consumer.

Why Do Media Firms Care About What Government Does?

Mass media regulation refers to the laws and guidelines that influence key media industry processes: production, distribution and exhibition. Three key arguments shape the media laws in the United States: how to define freedom of the press, what a good media system means, and how much government should guide it. (131)

• Even though the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution says “Congress shall make no law” abridging “the freedom of speech, or of the press,” the reality of this situation is much more complicated and has often been raised in the U.S. Supreme Court. Questions center on determining which governmental body is making the law, what exactly defines “the press,” and what is meant by “abridging.” (132-134)
• The Supreme Court has often approved government restrictions to abridge speech or the press that place limits on the time, place, and manner of expression. (134) Such restrictions are legal if they:
• Are applicable to everyone,
• Are without political bias,
• Serve a significant governmental interest,
• Leave ample alternative ways for the communication to take place.

More Allowable Government Control Over Media Content

Government regulation of media falls into three categories: regulation of content before it is distributed, regulation of content after it is distributed, and economic regulation. (134)

• Prior restraint is involved in regulating content before it is distributed. (135)
• Several areas that warrant prior restraint include obscenity, military operations, and copyright.
• Obscenity means something that is offensive to standards of decency and modesty, although determining what is offensive and why is a challenging undertaking. (135-136)
• The U.S. Supreme Court has consistently ruled that the government has a right to censorship via prior restraint when the national security of the United States is at risk, but the court has made it clear that national security is defined quite narrowly. (136-137) (see Table 5.1, p. 135, for other types of content for which the Supreme Court allows prior restraint)
• The regulation and control of media content prior to publication during wartime military operations have occurred since the Civil War.
• The military has developed strategies to control and shape wartime reporting, using pool reporting and embedded reporting.
• According to the U.S. Constitution, the purpose of copyright is “to promote the progress of science and the useful arts.” (137)
• The hesitancy of government agencies to stop the press from circulating content through prior restraint does not apply to copyright violations. (138)
• The Copyright Act of 1976 lays out the basic rules of copyright law as they exist in the United States today. (138-139)
• Fair use regulations allow writers and academics to use small portions of copyrighted material without permission. (139)
• Fair use is typically supportive of nonprofit, educational uses of copyrighted material and of uses that do no harm to the original work or that significantly transform the original work, to include added interpretations, including parodies of the original work. (139-140)
• Regulation of content  after  it is distributed:
• Defamation is a highly disreputable or false statement about a living person or an organization that causes injury to the reputation that a substantial group of people hold for that person or entity. (140-141)
• Libel is a form of published defamation, including libel per se (so-called “red flag” words) and libel per quod (words that become libelous because of their context). (141, see Table 5.2 for a list of “red flag” words)
• Slander is a form of spoken defamation. (141)
• There are two categories of libel plaintiffs: public figures and private persons. (141-142)
• The U.S. Supreme Court has defined actual malice as reckless disregard for truth or knowledge of falsity; the court has defined simple malice as ill will toward another person. (142)
• The court has defined simple negligence as lack of reasonable care by media organizations. (142)
• Invasion of privacy activities include false light, appropriation, intrusion, and public disclosure. (Table 5.3, p. 143-144)
• An emerging area of regulation concerns collection of data about individuals for marketing purposes and the protection of their privacy. (144-146)
• Economic regulations are rules that determine how firms are allowed to compete with each other and affects the ways media organizations finance, produce, distribute, and exhibit their products. (146)
• Antitrust laws prevent one company from controlling an entire market, which is called a monopoly. A few companies controlling a market is called an oligopoly. (146)
• Antitrust policies are carried out through the passage of laws, the enforcement of laws, and federal court decisions. (146-147)
• Two government agencies are important in the regulating of the mass media: the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). (147; see Figure 5.1) These agencies are responsible for creating technical order, encouraging competition, and protecting consumers. (147-150)

Media Self-Regulation

Self-regulation regimes are codes created by companies that define ethical codes of conduct within them. (150)

• Although self-regulation pressures do come from the government, external pressures to self-regulate also come from members of the public, advocacy organizations, and advertisers. (151-152)
• Self-regulation practices include editorial standards, or written statements of policy and conduct, and ombudspersons, or those who act as intermediaries in conflict situations. (153)
• Professional codes of ethics are created by members of professions spelling out what practitioners should and should not do. Journalism reviews report on and analyze examples of questionable ethics in the news industry. (153)
• Content ratings and advisories offers guides for determining the age-appropriate nature of films, television shows, or video games. See Table 5.4 for video games (154), Table 5.5 for movies (155), and Table 5.6 for television shows (155).

The Role of Ethics

Ethics is a system of notions about right and wrong that guides a person’s actions. (156) Bob Steele, a faculty member with the Poynter Institute, suggests ten questions to ask yourself when considering ethical questions while working in media. (156-157)

• What do I know? What do I need to know?
• What are my ethical concerns?
• What is my journalistic (or informational, entertainment, advertising, or educational) purpose?
• What organizational policies and professional guidelines should I consider?
• How can I include other people, with different perspectives and diverse ideas, in the decision-making process?
• Who are the stakeholders—those affected by my decision? What are their motivations? Which are legitimate?
• What if the roles were reversed? How would I feel if I were in the shoes of one of the stakeholders?
• What are the possible consequences of my actions in the short term? In the long run?
• What are my alternatives to maximize my truth-telling responsibility and minimize harm?
• Can I clearly and fully justify my thinking and my decision to my colleagues? To the stakeholders? To the public?

Ethical duties are related to different constituencies, including self, audience, employer, profession, promise-holders, and society. (157) Ethical standards occur at three levels: person, professional, and societal. Values, ideals, and principles cut across these levels. (158)

Media Regulations and the Savvy Citizen

• Determination of what is ethical conduct cannot be resolved by government regulation. Media-savvy citizens need to understand when it is appropriate to ask the government to intervene on media concerns. (160)
• There are few easily agreed-upon media ethics due to the complex and varied media industry in the United States. (161)
• Even if you’re not a media practitioner, thinking seriously about the formal and informal controls on the media content you see and hear each day is crucial to your role as a critical consumer of media. (161)
• ‘A Threat to Internet Freedom’ http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/10/opinion/a-threat-to-internet-freedom.html?_r=0
• How revenge porn sites rely on legal loopholes and anonymity https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/may/09/revenge-porn-websites-legal-loopholes-anonymity
• The Media Piracy Report http://piracy.americanassembly.org/the-report/
• The War Against Movie Piracy: Attack Both Supply And Demand http://www.forbes.com/sites/nelsongranados/2015/08/31/the-war-against-movie-piracy-attack-both-supply-and-demand/#6930921b772b
• Do Not Track – Interactive Documentary about privacy online https://donottrack-doc.com/en/intro/
• Online Defamation Law https://www.eff.org/issues/bloggers/legal/liability/defamation
• How Privacy Vanishes Online http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/17/technology/17privacy.html
• Creative Commons https://creativecommons.org/
• 10 common misconceptions about the public domain. http://www.publicdomainsherpa.com/10-misconceptions-about-the-public-domain.html

Preface to the Media Industries: The Forces Driving Convergence in Media Industries

The first five chapters of the book provided the foundations for thinking about different aspects of the media, including convergence, genres, structures and funding, and media regulations. Expanding on the ideas of convergence, this preface provides some key themes that underpin the different industries addressed in the following chapters. Many of these themes began before digital media and the Internet, but convergence has accelerated their growth and change.

The Spread of Digital Media

• Devices with computer processors allow access to digital media (text, audio, and visual materials.) Examples of these devices include laptop computers, tablets, and cellphones. (167)
• The Internet has accelerated the spread of convergence. (167)
• As much as the Internet has created opportunities for media, it also has created a lot more competition. With lower barriers to entry, almost anyone can create and distribute digital content. (167-168)

The Importance of Distribution Windows

• A distribution window is an exhibition point used to generate profits on media content, such as a movie theater, a retail store, or an online store. (168-169)
• Redistribution of the same material through different “windows” provides additional revenue opportunities. (169) See figure p.1 on p. 168.
• Convergence offers an even greater number of distribution windows than before. (169)

Audience Fragmentation and Segmentation

• Audience fragmentation, which began before the rise of digital media, refers to the splitting of audiences across the growing number of media outlets. (169)
• Channel fragmentation refers to this increase in mass media outlets, particularly during the last two decades. This was discussed in Chapter 1. (169-170; also 5-6)
• With the introduction of each new method of accessing content, the audience using that medium gets smaller—a process called audience erosion. (170)
• Audience segmentation refers to the ways in which media producers divide audience members into groups, and create media that target these groups. Targeting involves reaching for desired groups that the media company has identified. More desired audiences get more attention from the media as a result. (170-171) See figure P.2 on p. 171.  

Globalization

• Globalization is the movement of media content around the world. (171-172)
• Trying to reach global audiences is a way of making the potential audience larger and of possibly generating more profits. (172)
• Sending media content outside the United States poses a risk of global audiences not liking the content, so media companies might create divisions to address specific global audiences, or engage in co-productions, which are deals between two firms for funding and tailoring media material for international markets. (172-173)

Conglomeration

• A mass media conglomerate refers to a media company that holds stakes in several media industries. For example, Disney has its own television channels, film production facilities, radio network, publishing arm, recording division, and streaming channel. (173) See figure P.3 on p. 174. 
• These conglomerates used to treat each production arm separately, but now companies require them to work together to generate more revenue. (174-175)
• Vertical integration refers to one company owning all the means of media content creation from production through exhibition. This system used to be illegal, but recent laws have changed to allow it in some industries. (174)
• Horizontal integration is ownership of multiple parts of media content creation across multiple industries and the use of these outlets to ensure a profit across them. (174)
• Synergy refers to the whole being greater than the sum of its parts. In this case, media industries use their various outlets to maximize exposure, both nationally and globally, for their media products. (174)
• Media conglomerates also engage in joint ventures, the sharing of resources and revenues by two or more firms, to maximize economic gains or political influence. (175)

These five media trends will be key to the discussions of individual media industries in the following chapters.

• Facebook’s Subtle Empire http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/22/opinion/sunday/facebooks-subtle-empire.html?_r=0
• Let the Nanotargeting Begin http://campaignstops.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/04/15/let-the-nanotargeting-begin/
• Captain America: Civil War’ Soars to $14.9 Million Overseas on First Day http://variety.com/2016/film/news/captain-america-civil-war-box-office-international-opening-1201762760/
• ‘Captain America’ title will be changed to ‘The First Avenger’ in Russia, South Korea http://herocomplex.latimes.com/movies/captain-america-title-will-be-changed-to-the-first-avenger-in-russia-south-korea/
• Co-Productions in New Zealand http://www.nzfilm.co.nz/international-productions/co-productions
• South Africa's film industry http://www.southafrica.info/business/economy/sectors/film.htm
• The World’s 10 Largest Media Conglomerates http://elitedaily.com/money/the-worlds-10-largest-media-conglomerates/
• Who Owns the Media? http://www.freepress.net/ownership/chart

Chapter 6: The Internet Industry

Interactive timeline.

This chapter explores the Internet industry, which supports the explosive growth of convergence activities, and changing relationships between media and Internet industries and their audiences.

• Discuss the history of the Internet and the devices that link to it.
• Understand the Internet as a technology.
• Describe the Internet industry, its relationship to convergence, and its impact on media organizations and their consumers.
• Analyze concerns that observers hold about Internet privacy issues.

The Rise of the Internet

• The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that uses a standard set of commands to link billions of people worldwide. (177)
• Through the use of packets, these systems could maintain multiple data conversations at one time. (177-178)
• Hyperlinks connect documents and files through special coding that makes them “clickable.” (178)
• HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, defines the structures of web pages and allows their interconnection. (178)
• The Internet started within military and academic institutions and became more available for public use by the mid-1990s. (178)
• See Figure 6.2 for more history of the Internet’s development. (180-181)
• Internet use is very common among adults in general, though younger people are more typical users than older ones. Figure 6.1 breaks down the demographics of adults who do not use the Internet. (178)
• Table 6.2 provides statistics on the online platforms most popular with teens. (182)

Production, Distribution, and Exhibition on the Internet

• Unlike most other industries, the roles among production, distribution, and exhibition often blur online. Users and industries can take on multiple roles more easily than in other venues. (182-183)
• People often create content for places that they can’t control. (182)
• User-generated content (UGC) is made by people who often use the same website, such as someone making a video and uploading it to YouTube. (182)
• The parent sites will format the content and determine how (and if) other users receive it, serving in the role of producer and distributor. (182)
• Internet service providers (ISPs) allow audiences to access the Internet. ISPs take on the role of exhibitor. (183)
• Wi-Fi allows people to access the Internet without using a wire. (183; see Figure 6.4 on p. 184)
• Net neutrality refers to the idea that ISPs will not restrict people’s access to any specific website. Some companies and libraries will block certain sites that would waste time or embarrass employees. (184-185)
• The net neutrality controversy comes up with ISPs claiming that they want to charge some sites for exhibition due to their heavy bandwidth, but many argue that such a practice would affect society in negative ways. (185-186)

Social Media Sites and Search Engines

• Social media sites (also called social networking sites) allow people to interact with others around different types of content. Popular examples are Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and LinkedIn. (178)
• A search engine allows you to look for information on the Internet. Google is the most popular search engine. Web crawlers create an index of sites, and then algorithms, or mathematical rules, determine which results get returned to you. In Google, this is referred to as natural or organic search results. (186-187)
• Some search engines allow advertisers to pay to have their sites place higher in the search results when someone searches a keyword they have purchased.
• Social media sites and search engines are seeing ways to bring their services together through a social search, which allows people to search among their connections to find popular items. (187-188)

Funding Online Content

• Search engines and social media sites compete for advertising dollars, though there are other approaches to making money through websites. (188)
• Sites involved in image making get people to interact with their products, such as Jell-O. (188)
• Other companies sell subscriptions to content, such as magazines or media content. Some subscriptions are tiered (sometimes referred to as “freemium” pricing), and others are flat rate. Consumers are still resistant to subscriptions. (188-189)
• Advertising also generates revenues for sites, and some claim the advantage online is in reaching very specific audiences with customized messages. (189-190)
• Keyword advertising and contextual advertising offer ways to customize those messages. (189-190)
• Profiling refers to creating a description of an audience member in order to tailor specific messages to them. Information for these profiles comes from voluntary information you enter, including your e-mail address and your interest categories. It also comes from cookies, or small files that track your progress through a site. (190)
• Clickstreams refer to your mouse clicks through a site. (190)
• The companies then use these data to deliver specific messages to you; this is called behavioral targeting. (190)
• The process that brings millions of profiles together is called data mining. (190; see Figure 6.5, p. 191)
• An ad network connects different websites together in order to sell ads on them. (191)
• Ad exchanges are electronic auctions that publishers and ad networks use to offer advertisers the ability to reach specific types of people when they enter certain sites. (191-192)

“Web-Centered” and “App-Centered” Businesses

• Applications, or apps, bring material to audiences through the Internet, but not through the Web. Users access the content through the app instead of through a website. (192)
• Mobile applications, or mobile apps, work specifically on feature phones or smartphones. (192)
• Some publishers view mobile users as separate from web users, but some publishers do not and will create content for both computer-based and mobile-based systems. (193)
• Advertising is an important component of mobile apps and the mobile Web as ways to finance content production. (194)

Media Ethics: Confronting Internet Privacy

• Media critics worry about the protection of people’s privacy online. Part of this concern rests on the two-way function of the Internet. We might not want to share everything that we enter into a website registration form or other ordering form. (194-195)
• Although cookies don’t allow access to personally identifiable information, critics claim that companies still can get this information easily. (195)
• Media executives claim that they need this information in order to remain competitive for advertising and that people often provide this information willingly. (195-196)
• Privacy advocates suggest that an opt-in approach would work better, but marketers prefer the opt-out approach because of the difficulties in getting people to opt in. (196)
• The European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) requires firms that use people’s data to disclose what they do with them and to get permission before collecting the data. This is seen as a model by some American data privacy advocates. (196)
• Privacy is not just web-based but is also on mobile phones and even television. (196)
• Top 15 Most Popular Social Networking Sites http://www.ebizmba.com/articles/social-networking-websites
• How Twitter's Trending Algorithm Picks Its Topics http://www.npr.org/2011/12/07/143013503/how-twitters-trending-algorithm-picks-its-topics
• What You Need to Know About Twitter’s Algorithmic Timeline http://www.wired.com/2016/02/what-you-need-to-know-about-twitters-algorithmnic- timeline/
• The 7 ‘creep factors’ of online behavioral advertising http://venturebeat.com/2012/02/22/the-7-creep-factors-of-online-behavioral-advertising/
• The State Of Mobile And The App Economy In 2015 http://www.forbes.com/sites/eladnatanson/2015/05/26/the-state-of-mobile-and-the-app-economy-in-2015/#10a267be6f48
• Block ads? That only makes you more attractive to advertisers http://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/feb/16/ad-blocking-advertisers
• Adblockers: US growth could remove $12bn advertising by 2020 http://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/may/17/adblockers-us-growth-remove-12bn-advertising-2020

Statistical Machine

Emanuel Goldberg and Robert Luther in Germany receive a U.S. patent for a “Statistical Machine” an early document search engine that uses photoelectric cells and pattern recognition to search for specific words on microfilm documents. This device was an early version of a search engine. Goldberg’s interest in linking bits of knowledge quickly may have influenced Vannevar Bush’s ideas about text linking.

"As We May Think"

Scientist Vannevar Bush publishes the article “As We May Think” in The Atlantic magazine predicting the invention of technology that would allow ideas in different parts of text to link to one another. This was a key public expression of the idea of the hypertext, which became reality with the invention of the World Wide Web.

Electronic Numeric Integrator and Computer (ENIAC)

University of Pennsylvania engineers create ENIAC, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. This is the first programmable, electronic digital computer. There are several predecessors to ENIAC, but this invention ushers in the computer age.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4oGI_dNaPc

ENIAC: The First Computer

United State Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA)

President Eisenhower requests funds to create the United States Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Responding to the Soviet Union’s launch of the Sputnik satellite, ARPA was to lead the development of new military technologies. It was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYQ3NSQfg40

DARPA-Military Secrets Scientists

Packing Switching

Larry Roberts at MIT sets up an experiment in which two computers communicate to each other using packet-switching technology. This experiment is a major move forward in the creation of a network of interacting computers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tT4AaelwvV4

Story of Packet Switching

ARPANET project begins in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Larry Roberts is in charge. The goal is to create a packet-switching interconnected network of computers that can continue operating even when one part of the network is disabled by war.

ARPANET Connects

ARPANET connects computers at four U.S. universities. The first ARPANET message is sent between the University of California and Stanford University. The aim is to connect scientists at universities around the U.S. using a computer network. 1969 marks the first successful venture in this direction and paves the way for more and more computers to be joined into the network.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=khajeqHUQ7Q

Internet History part 1: The First Time Two Computers Were Ever Connected

First Email Program

Ray Tomlinson creates the first email program, along with the @ sign to signify “at.” This is the start of specific “applications” on the network.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhXk3wzemR4

Ray Tomlinson: The Inventor of Email

The U.K. and Norway Connect

ARPANET establishes connections to two universities in the UK and Norway. The linkage between computers becomes international.

Apple Computer

Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak found Apple computers. The company will become a major force in spreading the internet and its uses and redefining the home computer.

https://youtu.be/DZyKlZcqrjk

The History of Apple in Under 10 Minutes

The Personal Computer and DOS

IBM announces the first personal computer (PC). Microsoft creates the PC’s disk operating system (DOS). This marks the beginning of Microsoft’s race to become a powerful company in computing, the internet, and video games.

https://youtu.be/ymCrUDTRuLI

IBM 5150 PC: CBS Sunday Morning

Domain Name System (DNS)

Paul Mockapetris and Jon Postel create the domain name system for the internet. These included the suffixes of .edu, .gov., .com , .mil, .org., .net, and .int. (Previously people used a series of numbers, such as 131.156.99.3.) In 1985, Symbolic.com becomes the first registered “domain” on ARPANET/Internet. Domain names serve as words that refer to places of internet participants on the internet that are fundamentally defined in terms of numerical addresses. It is a key step in organizing the internet for widespread use.

Cisco Routers

25 million PCs are sold in the U.S. and the first Cisco routers are shipped. These developments reflect the popular growth in personal-computer use and the beginnings of connections of these computers to the internet. Routers are devices that forward data packets between computer networks. Reading the internet address information in the packet, routers perform the “traffic directing” functions of the internet.

https://youtu.be/7_LPdttKXPc

How the Internet Works in 5 Minutes

The World Wide Web

ARPANET formally ends. Tim Berners-Lee creates the World Wide Web. This system of interlinked hypertext documents changes the way people access information.

https://youtu.be/HloK8KW6nGo

PBS Special on 20th Anniversary of the WWW—interview with Tim Berners-Lee

Mosaic Web Browser

Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina invent Mosaic, the first widely used Web browser at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. It quickly becomes a popular way to access pictures and text on the World Wide Web. It becomes the model for the popular Netscape browser and others that came afterwards. This browser development marked the beginning of the Web as a popular and commercial destination.

https://youtu.be/_L3Y2_YiT-A

Early days of Mosaic & Netscape Browsers: Marc Andreessen, Jim Clark, and John Doerr

Campus-Wide Internet

Carnegie Mellon University offers the first campus-wide wireless access to the internet.

Microsoft releases Windows 95. Borrowing the idea from Apple, this PC operating system used a graphical user interface, start menu, and task bar. It quickly became the most popular desktop operating system.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tw-GGT6900s&feature=youtu.be

Windows 95 Commercial

The New York Times Online

The New York Times establishes a website. It reflects the beginnings of the movement of offline journalism online. (See Chapter 8.)

Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)

U.S. Congress passes the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act. COPPA reflects concerns in U.S. society about the ways marketers and other agencies track people, including young people, online and use their information without permission. This law singled children out for special concern. Effective in 2000, the act specified what a website operator must include in a privacy policy, when and how to seek verifiable consent from a parent or guardian, and what responsibilities an operator has to protect children's privacy and safety online including restrictions on the marketing to those under 13.

https://youtu.be/0kbqirhmKaA

Sergey Brin and Larry Page incorporate the search engine Google. It becomes the preeminent search engine and powerful internet advertising force.

https://youtu.be/RXWyWfcQGoA

Larry Page and Sergey Brin, Google History

Internet Crime

The European Council adopts the first treaty addressing criminal offenses committed over the Internet. Countries are beginning to grapple with how to think of law as it relates to the internet necessitating new specializations within law such as internet law, media law, and information technology law.

Apple introduces the iTunes media player and library application. It is the beginning of what will become Apple’s wildly successful venture into selling music tracks, videos, books, and other digital products for its desktop and mobile devices when they launch the iTunes store in 2003.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kweuRH7QwUE&feature=youtu.be

Apple iMac Ad: iTunes 1(2001)

Lawsuits for Copyright Infringement

The RIAA sues 261 individuals for allegedly distributing copyrighted music files over peer-to-peer networks.

Facebook Acquires Instagram

Mark Zuckerberg and fellow Harvard students create the Facebook social networking site.

Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, Biz Stone and Noah Glass launch Twitter.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NzRkszaGBbY

Mashable - The Illustrated History of Twitter

Google Acquires YouTube

Google, Inc. acquires YouTube for $1.65 billion in a stock-for-stock transaction.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QCVxQ_3Ejkg

A Message From YouTube's Founders

Google Website Reaches #1

Search engine giant Google surpasses software giant Microsoft in having the most visited website.

Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger create Instagram.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N92MQ9o4Fe0

Digital Charlotte - What is Instagram?

Smartphone Adoption Increases

Over one third (35%) of American adults own a smartphone.

Evan Spiegel and Bobby Murphy create Snapchat while students at Stanford University.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GmHV9XPcKMw

GeneralTechHQ - What is Snapchat?

Facebook purchases Instagram for $1 billion.

Smartphones Become Widespread

Nearly two thirds of Americans (64%) own a smartphone, and one in five rely solely on smartphones to access the internet.

Internet Society Celebrates 25th Anniversary

The nonprofit Internet Society was established in 1992 to “ensure that a healthy, sustainable Internet is available to everyone.”

https://goo.gl/images/d5sByt

FCC Repeals Net Neutrality rules

The FCC repeals 2015 net neutrality rules saying a restoration of the Federal Trade Commission’s authority over internet service providers would benefit consumers.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-switch/wp/2017/12/14/the-fcc-is-expected-to-repeal-its-net-neutrality-rules-today-in-a-sweeping-act-of-deregulation/?utm_term=.617fbc50d610

Facebook Data Breach

Cambridge Analytica, a data analytics firm, accesses information of millions of Facebook users, opening Facebook to an investigation by the FTC about privacy protections.

Chapter 7: The Book Industry

Chapter 7 is the first chapter of the book to delve into the structures of the more traditional media industries and their reactions to the impact of convergence. Watch for the themes mentioned in the preface to Part II to connect across the following chapters. Each of these chapters will contain a timeline with several key themes related to the historical development of each medium.

• Understand today’s books in terms of the development of books over the centuries.
• Differentiate among the different types of books within the book publishing industry.
• Explain the roles of production, distribution, and exhibition as they pertain to the book publishing industry.
• Realize and evaluate the effects of new digital technologies on the book publishing industry.
• Analyze ethical pitfalls present in the book publishing industry.

The History of the Book

• Although the growth of e-book readers has been strong and digital audiobook sales are growing, paper-based books are still the largest segment of book sales. (200)
• At its core, the history of the book is about humans trying to use technology to record and circulate ideas. (201)
• Three themes from the timeline (202-203, Figure 7.1) include:
• The modern book did not arrive in a flash as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (201)
• The book as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different historical periods. (201-203)
• The book as a medium of communication existed long before the existence of the book industry. (203-204)

The Book Industry Today

• The book industry is growing and economically healthy.
• Books are currently divided into two categories:
• Educational and training books, marked by their use of pedagogy (particular teaching approaches), including learning objectives, chapter summaries, and questions for discussion (204-205). They include these three subcategories.
• K–12 books and materials created for students in kindergarten through twelfth grade.
• Higher education books that focus on teaching students through college and postcollege learning.
• Professional books that help continue the learning process beyond college.
• Consumer books, aimed at the general public. (197) They include these subcategories (205-206, see Table 7.1 for percentage of sales by type):
• Trade books are general-interest titles, including fiction and nonfiction; typically sold at retail bookstores and to libraries; divided into adult and juvenile.
• Mass market paperbacks are smaller than standard-size trade paperbacks and are sold at mass market outlets such as drug stores and supermarkets.
• Religious books are trade books that contain religious content; sold at religious bookstores and general bookstores.
• Professional books, as noted earlier, help professionals in their careers.
• Scholarly books are published by university presses for those working in research, higher education, government, or even corporate settings.

Book clubs are organizations through which individuals who have joined can select books from the club’s catalog and purchase them through the mail or via the club’s website; traditionally, they have operated on a negative-option plan, requiring consumers to cancel their memberships or otherwise receive “main selection” books on a monthly basis.

• Mail-order books are advertised on television and in mailings and require consumers to use an 800 phone number to order books with a credit card.
• Subscription reference books constitute various “great books” series, dictionaries, atlases, and encyclopedias, sold door-to-door or via direct mail; several volumes are sold at one time with a deferred payment schedule.

Variety and Specialization in Book Publishing

• Financing book publishing (207-210):
• The Census Bureau count of book publishing found 2,280, with only around 70 large enough to have 500+ employees. Most had one to four employees. (208)
• Small publishing houses can reap benefits of readers and revenue, such as Writers’ Coffee Shop, which published the  Fifty   Shades  series. The series outpaced the selling of the  Harry   Potter  titles. (208)
• Only a few publishers accounted for almost 90 percent of both paperback and hardcover best-seller lists in 2012: Penguin Random House, Simon & Schuster, Hachette Book Group, HarperCollins, and Macmillan. Several of these publishers are part of larger media conglomerates. (208-209)
• Book publishing is about finding, preparing, marketing, distributing, and exhibiting titles to particular audiences. (210)

Production in the Book Publishing Industry

• Production in trade publishing (210-211):
• The acquisitions editor recruits and signs new authors and titles.
• Authors may be paid a flat fee or may earn royalties from the sale of the book.
• Literary agents market manuscripts to editors, publishers, or other potential buyers.
• In the hardcover trade end of the industry, a bestseller achieves sales of 75,000 hardcover or 100,000 paperback copies; a blockbuster achieves sales of well over 100,000 copies.
• Production at a university press (211):
• Major success means selling several thousand copies (far fewer than in the hardcover trade area); success is often based on commanding respect from professors who tell their students and university libraries to buy copies.
• Editors rely on consultants who give them tips about young professors (potential writers) whose work seems promising; established professors can’t meet the entire demand for scholarly work.
• Academic conferences are typically used to publicize books; brochures are sent to scholars who specialize in a given topic.
• Book production in the electronic age (212-214):
• The biggest book publishers are active in creating books for the electronic market.
• Interest in devices known as e-readers has soared with the Kindle, Nook, and others.
• Sales of e-books took off, accounting for almost 50 percent of new best-seller sales. But e-books sales have dropped in recent years, with some pointing to pricing as the issue.
• Reducing the risks of failure during the production process:
• Three of these strategies include the following (214-216):
• Conducting prepublication research to see if audiences might be interested,
• Using authors with positive track records,  
• Offering advances on royalties, or a payment made before the book’s publication, based on what the publisher thinks the author will earn.

Distribution in the Book Industry

• The role of wholesalers in the distribution process: they purchase copies from publishers and then sell them to retailers (exhibitors) at a discount; wholesalers risk giving too much storage space to a title; publishers risk having unsold copies returned, so the publisher must be realistic about the print run (the number of copies printed). (217)
• Wholesalers use three indicators to assess a title’s popularity potential (218):
• The size of the print run,
• The content of reviews,
• The scope of the marketing plan (including the author’s book tour).

Exhibition in the Book Publishing Industry

Many different kinds of bookstores exist, and the online presence of publishers, as well as electronic publishing, is changing the means of exhibition in the industry. (219)

• Exhibition of consumer books (219-220):
• Bookstore chains (brick-and-mortar stores) took over bookselling from independents in the mid-1990s.
• These chains are struggling in the face of Amazon.com and other online markets.
• In addition to promoting more awareness of books, lower prices at online outlets offer competition to physical stores.
• Exhibition in textbook publishing (220-221):
• The exhibition area for K–12 books is constituted by the evaluation boards that determine purchases; Texas and California are most influential in this process, because the selection process is centralized, and the states are very large.
• College-level textbooks are assigned by professors; new editions of college textbooks have two purposes:
• New editions have more up-to-date information.
• Publishers discourage used book sales in order to maintain profit; revised editions of popular textbooks keep publishers in business.
• Several states have passed laws that attempt to keep textbook prices as low as possible.
• Renting digital texts for a semester is a growing option for students.

Convergence and Conglomeration in the Book Industry

Book publishers are frequently part of larger media and other corporations. (221-222)

• A title that moves content across media boundaries is typically presold (the publisher expects it will sell well to specific audiences because it ties into material that is already popular with the target audience); book lovers are concerned about this process, because they fear it may drive out other titles from the marketplace. (222)
• The media-literate person may well ask these questions about the book industry:
• To what extent are the books that garner the most media attention today generated as a result of an author or character’s popularity in another medium? (222)
• Are we seeing an increase in cooperative activities between movie companies and book publishers owned by the same conglomerate? That is, are movie companies mostly using the publishers to sell books that publicize the movies, and are book companies trying to come up with titles that can become films? (222)

Ethical Issues in Book Production

Ethics issues in book production start with plagiarism, which involves using another person’s work without citing the original author. (222)

• Ethical issues for authors (223):
• For fiction writers, it involves taking passages without citing.
• For nonfiction authors, it involves making up “facts” or quotes.
• Ethical issues for editors and literary agents include stealing ideas from unknown authors and assigning better-known authors the job of turning the ideas into books; sometimes, unscrupulous agents charge authors fees to represent them but then don’t follow through. (223-224)
• E-Reading Rises as Device Ownership Jumps http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/01/16/e-reading-rises-as-device-ownership-jumps/
• Tablet and E-reader Ownership Update http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/10/18/tablet-and-e-reader-ownership-update/
• Kindle Most Popular Device For Ebooks, Beating Out iPad; Tablets On The Rise http://www.forbes.com/sites/jeremygreenfield/2013/10/30/kindle-most-popular-device-for-ebooks-beating-out-ipad-tablets-on-the-rise/#69d151af3784
• Readers Want More Value for Ebooks, New Study Suggests http://www.digitalbookworld.com/2013/readers-want-more-value-for-ebooks-new-study-suggests/
• Popularity of eBooks has changed library circulation http://www.statejournal.com/story/22643359/popularity-of-ebooks-has-changed-library-circulation
• Ten Things You May Not Know About Ebook Prices http://techcrunch.com/2014/01/15/ten-things-you-may-not-know-about-ebook-prices/
• Which 5 Book Genres Make The Most Money? http://www.therichest.com/rich-list/which-5-book-genres-make-the-most-money/?view=all
• Ebook timeline http://www.theguardian.com/books/2002/jan/03/ebooks.technology
• The 6 Most Popular eBook Formats To Know About http://www.edudemic.com/most-popular-ebook-formats-2/
• 2016 Predictions for the Self-Publishing Industry https://www.bookworks.com/2016/01/2016-predictions-for-self-publishing/

3000 BC The Papyrus Roll

Ancient Egyptians invent the papyrus roll. Predecessor of all modern printed materials, laid foundations for print communication.

Art of the Scribe: Works on Papyrus

2500-3000 BCE Lampblack Ink

Lampblack ink or "India ink" is introduced in China. The carbon based material allows for permanence in writing.

Early Christians popularize the codex. Rather than the traditional scroll, it is an unbound manuscript of single pages. Manuscripts began to take on look of the book.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4Xkv2gjzZw

British Broadcasting Company - The Codex Sinaiticus: The Oldest Surviving Christian New Testament - The Beauty of Books – (BBC)

Woodblock Printing

Woodblock printing appears in China

The Early Printing Press

Printing process using wooden blocks developed in China. This remained the most commonly-used printing method in East Asia until the 19th century. The technique was used in Europe until the 15th century.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y57rUeCHoXg

China Engraved Block Printing Technique

Gutenberg's Printing Press

Gutenberg develops the printing press. Only 100 years after invention of printing press about 9 million books were available in Europe Before then, only a few thousand had been available.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0ojyCDRc8uc

Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press

First censorship of books. Pope Innocent VIII issues a Papal Bull (on November 17, 1487) that requires church authorities approve all books before they are printed. Although the Church had always censored printed materials, the advent of the printing press made distribution of printed materials easier, thus, they established this formal rule forbidding book shops to stock books that were not approved by the Church.

Introduction of a Licensing System

King Henry VIII establishes licensing system. It creates a list of prohibited books and established that only printers with authority from the crown can use printing presses. This marks the establishment of censorship on a government level.

Restrictions on Licensing

Licensing procedures are further restricted to consolidate British Royal power. Only 23 printers are allowed to use presses, and there are now harsher penalties for printers that continue to use their presses without authority from the monarch.

Printing Press Appears in America

First printing press in the U.S. The first printing press in the U.S. is established in Cambridge, Massachusetts with some assistance from Harvard University. Interestingly, this link between the printer who initially sought to set up a printing press in the U.S. (Rev. Joseph Glover) and Harvard University came to pass after Glover died at sea while bringing the equipment to the U.S. and his widow went on to marry Harvard University president, Henry Dunster.

http://www.cambridgehistory.org/discover/innovation/American%20Printing.html

The Statute of Anne

The Copyright Act of 1709, also known as “The Statute of Anne” (referring to Queen Anne), protects printed works for specific periods of time and sets forth penalties for those who stole the material under copyright.

http://archive.org/stream/thestatuteofanne33333gut/33333.txt

Emergence of Large Printing Companies

Books continue to be printed by small, family owned businesses. This will change as expensive steam-powered printing presses allow for the growth of large companies that can manufacture many books quickly.

Establishment of Formal Publishing Industry

With the widespread mechanization of printing, publishers are established as separate entities from booksellers.

The Hoe steam-powered cylinder

Hoe’s steam-powered cylinder is able to produce 4000 double impressions on paper in an hour—which is four times faster than Gutenberg’s press. This invention leads to the ability or printers to mass produce books on larger scale.

Trains Contributed to the Distribution of Books Throughout the U.S.

Book Distribution

The U.S. experiences a growth in the construction of canals and railroads, leading to a demand for reading material for long journeys. Publishers’ are also now able to send books throughout the continent and distribute their content in a faster, large-scale way.

Immigration and Literacy Increases

There is a great influx of immigrants to America. In English and in other languages, book publishers have more potential consumers available as populations and literacy levels increase.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u4wzVuXPznk http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/immigration/timeline.html

Immigration Through Ellis Island: Award Winning Documentary

Book Publishing Becomes an Industry

Large book-selling companies begin to emerge with departments specializing in different types of books aimed at different market segments. During this time, companies such as Little and Brown, Houghton, Scribner, John Wiley and Sons, and J.P. Putnam—many of which are still around today—were established as major publishing houses.

U.S. Authors

The number of successful U.S. authors grows. Authors such as Harriet Beecher Stowe (Uncle Tom’s Cabin) and Washington Irving (The Sketch Book with the story “Rip Van Winkle”) end up selling hundreds of thousands of copyrighted books in this decade. This literary period is sometimes called the “American Renaissance.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4nfJGYR7F0w

Harriet Beecher Stowe & “Uncle Tom’s Cabin”

Domestic Novels

Rise of domestic novels in the U.S. These tearjerker stories are aimed at women, and are the predecessors of TV’s soap operas and the current publishing industry’s Harlequin romances.

The International Copyright Convention

U.S. joins International Copyright Convention. U.S. publishers now want the government to join this convention because they are losing revenues on the books they are publishing. This is because foreign companies have begun to copy and sell American books without paying royalties (just as American publishers did with English books in 1855).

Offset Lithography

Offset lithography is developed as a commonly used printing process. This printing process allows for rapid color printing, thus increasing the number of books that are printed in full color.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AyxSLOZaj-M

Four Color Printing Process Explained

Book-of-the-Month Club

The Book-of-the-Month Club is founded by Harry Scherman, Max Sackheim, and Robert Haas. The BOMC provided hardbacks at lower cost than bookstores and for people who did not have bookstores near them. It also made recommendations for other books subscribers might be interested in based on what they’ve already read that they could easily order through the Book Club. It spawned several imitators.

Random House

Bennett Cerf and Donald Klopfer start the Random House publishing company. From the idea they would “publish a few books on the side at random,” it grows into the largest general-interest trade book publisher in the world, now owned by Bertelsmann.

The Great Depression

This Great Depression financial crisis hurts the book industry since many people no longer have the extra money to spend on purchasing entertainment items such as books

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ccNilnpvbJg

The Crash of 1929 and The Great Depression (PBS)

Pocket Books

Inspired by the example of cheap Penguin Books in the U.K., Pocket Books produces first mass-market paperback books in U.S. The first ten small, inexpensive books with popular titles such as Lost Horizon, Topper, and Bambi are extremely popular. They sell more 1.5 million copies in a year and start a new form of American book publishing.

Major Corporations Enter Book Industry

Growing conglomerates express interest in the book publishing industry. Major corporations such as Time Warner, CBS, and Advance Publications buy companies in the book business in the 1960s. In addition, European book companies start purchasing American book publishing companies beginning in the 1980s.

Project Gutenberg

Project Gutenberg, a volunteer-led project that digitizes and archives cultural works, is founded. This is the first digital library, and is a clear sign of things to come for the book industry in terms of digitization and how books are distributed.

http://www.gutenberg.org/

MacPublisher

The first desktop publishing program for the pathbreaking Apple MacIntosh personal computer, MacPublisher, is introduced. This substantially lowers the cost of formatting books and encourages low-cost publishing.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mFGRngF7B90

Macintosh Commercial: Apple Desktop Publishing

Google co-founders Sergey Brin and Larry Page create a web crawler to index books—the precursor to Google’s PageRank algorithm and Google Books.

https://books.google.com/intl/en/googlebooks/about/history.html

Bookstores Decline

Independent bookstores decrease by over 50% in the U.S., from 4,700 to 2,000.

Google Books

Google begins scanning millions of books with the goal of offering electronic access and sale. The activity ignites much controversy—and lawsuits—as authors and publishers demand to be consulted and paid. Click on the link for the New York Times article, “Some Fear Google’s Power in Digital Books.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pEl6zrOvCmI

The Future of Google Books: Google Co-founder Sergey Brin

The Amazon Kindle

Amazon.com introduces the Kindle electronic book reader. It proves to be the beginning a move to huge readership of electronic versions of books. Other companies follow with their own versions of the “eReader”. Click here for the CNN.com article, “A Year Later, Amazon’s Kindle Finds a Niche.”

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/02/technology/internet/02link.html?em&_r=0 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsPF1_tovQw

Amazon Kindle Commercial

Digital Book Sales Increase

Amazon announces that it sold more Kindle e-Books for Christmas than it did physical books. This development highlights the growth of eBooks and supports USA Today’s decision in 2009 to incorporate Kindle sales into its weekly list of bestselling books. Click here for the Business Insider article, “Kindle Milestone: Amazon Sold More Kindle Books Than Physical Books on Xmas.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsPF1_tovQw

Introduction of the iPad

The highly popular iPad is introduced and becomes another major vehicle for electronic book reading. Throughout the years, the iPad incorporates more and more interactive features to make eBooks more than just a flat document on an electronic device.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qiUs8HQu_1o

Apple iPad Ad (3/7/2010)

Kindle Owner’s Library

The Kindle Owners' Library Lending launches. The aim is to encourage libraries to purchase and circulate electronic books in a manner that makes money for Amazon. Other firms, notably owned by Adobe, also offer libraries software for lending eBooks. Click on the link for the Washington Post article, “Amazon Launches Kindle Lending Library.”

http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2011-11-03/business/35283890_1_kindle-owners-kindle-devices-kindle-fire

Borders Books

Borders Books goes out of business. Although some observers note that Borders had some specific problems (not necessarily related to digital sales) that caused its demise, many nevertheless see it as a sign of the decline of brick and mortar stores in the age of Amazon. Click on the link below for the Daily Mail article, “Borders Goes Out of Business After 40 Years, Leaving 11,000 Without Jobs.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gSPMmjMz6LM http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2016289/Borders-goes-business-40-years-leaving-11-000-jobs.html#ixzz2S9SFqIeo

Borders Closes the Book as Decisions Come Back to Haunt Chain (PBS)

E-book Expansion Continues

E-books make up 30% of all book sales in the U.S.

Number of Independent Bookstores Increases

Independent bookstores begin to make a resurgence, growing from 1,651 stores in the U.S. in 2009 to 2,094 in 2014.

Amazon Opens “Bricks and Mortar” Bookstore

Amazon gets physical with the opening of a full-service bookstore in a Seattle shopping mall, with others planned around the country.

https://goo.gl/images/g1NRMg

Obamas Receive Record Advance

Penguin Random House pays Barak and Michelle Obama $65 million in a joint deal for their memoirs.

Audio Book Sales Up, E-book Sales Down

Sales of audio books rise 37.1% over 2017 sales figures with E-book sales down 2.8%

https://www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/industry-news/financial-reporting/article/79019-industry-sales-flat-through-november.html

Chapter 8: The News Industry

As with books, newspapers predate  the development of the newspaper industry. The newspaper industry has also faced serious challenges following convergence.

• Describe key developments in U.S. newspaper history.
• Explain the production, distribution, and exhibition processes of various types of news outlets.
• Recognize and discuss the challenges faced by the newspaper industry today and some approaches to dealing with them.
• Apply your media literacy skills and ethical compass to evaluate activities of the newspaper industry and their impact on your everyday life.

The Development of the Newspaper

• Newspapers are defined as printed products created on a regular basis (for example, weekly or daily) and released in multiple copies. (228)
• Three themes in the newspaper’s development (228-229, see Figure 8.1 for timeline):
• Like the modern book, the modern newspaper did not arrive in a flash as the result of one inventor’s grand change.
• The newspaper as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different historical periods. For example, an adversarial press argued with the government, which didn’t always respond favorably.
• The newspaper as a medium of communication existed long before the existence of the newspaper industry.

An Overview of the Contemporary Newspaper Industry

The industry is divided into the publication of dailies and weeklies.

• Daily circulation has decreased, caused by the prominence of online news and an audience who doesn’t read print editions. (232-234)
• Daily newspaper chains don’t tend to have competition from other papers. They used to hold power in deciding advertising costs, but the growth of the Internet cut into those profits. Many struggled to stay afloat after accruing large debts they struggled to repay.
• In seeking specialized audiences, weekly newspapers have fared better. (234)
• They are often given out for free and place a large emphasis on arts and culture.
• They typically cover four areas: neighborhoods within cities, suburbs, rural areas, and groups of people divided among identity, occupation, or interests.
• Alternative weeklies target young, urban audiences, and shoppers aim at particular neighborhoods.
• Newspapers offer a variety among weekly and daily papers for addressing different audiences and professions, such as African Americans or lawyers. (234-235).

Financing the Newspaper Business

Papers generate revenues in two ways: advertising and circulation. Advertising is the dominant source of money. (236) Advertisers evaluate purchasing ad space in newspapers by looking at the cost per thousand readers (CPM).

• Types of ads include the following (237-238, see Figure 8.2 for sources of advertising revenue):
• Retail ads serve local businesses and are the most lucrative.
• Classified ads are short announcements for products or services and are the second most lucrative.
• National ads come from large companies not located in the local area; cooperative ads are co-sponsored by a national company and a local retail outlet.
• Freestanding inserts (FSIs) advertise particular products and services; they’re added to the newspaper and distributed with it.
• Circulation generates less revenue than advertising, yet circulation numbers are important to advertising for determining the cost, appeal, and CPM. (238-239)
• Concerns with circulation include whether young people will stop reading the printed edition and whether audiences will pay enough for a digital edition for the newspapers to survive. In addition, more and more advertisers are moving their content online where they can reach young audiences themselves. (239-240)

Production in the Newspaper Industry

• The publisher is in charge of a newspaper’s operation, and policies are implemented by the editor and managing editor. (240-244, see Figure 8.3 for a newspaper content creation flowchart)
• The advertising–editorial ratio, which sets the daily “news hole,” is determined by the publisher.
• Reporters include general assignment reporters, beat reporters, and freelancers; news reports also come from wire services, including the Associated Press, and from syndicates (companies that sell a variety of newspaper content).
• Reporters work on a deadline, or a time by which their stories must be submitted. Copy editors check and edit submitted stories.  
• With print, deadlines were set by the press run times. Online news has made deadlines “24/7” with reporters expected to update stories as they happen.
• Online news requirements for reporters often include preparing photo or video versions of stories and writing blog postings or other updates on social media.  
• Increasingly, newspaper websites encourage their readers to engage with the news through commenting on stories, liking or sharing stories, or contacting reporters directly.
• Pagination is the ability to display and compose completed pages, with pictures and graphics on screen; digital technology allows editors to submit images to plates in the printing operation. (244)

Distribution and the Newspaper Industry

• Newspaper distribution means bringing the finished issue—either print or digital—to the point of exhibition. (244)
• In determining where to market the newspaper, newspapers consider:
• The location of consumers that major advertisers would like to reach,
• The location of present and future printing plants,
• The competition of other papers,
• The loyalty to the paper, if any, that people in different areas seem to have. (245)
• An alternative practice is to buy newspapers in several communities and then offer space to advertisers through the group of them. The papers save money by combining staffs and draw on existing reader loyalty. (245)

Exhibition in the Newspaper Industry

• Exhibition options include websites, newspaper vending machines, homes, and businesses. (246)
• Total market coverage (TCM) refers to reaching nearly all the households in a newspaper’s market area. Newspapers could claim that in the past, but they can’t anymore. (246)
• Direct mail firms and marriage mail outfits compete with newspapers and offer TMC. (246)

A Key Industry Issue: Building Readership

• The recent downturn in readership trends has newspaper publishers and editors concerned, and they are looking for ways to build readership using analog and digital strategies. (247)
• Analog strategies (print) involve the print edition and include colorful layouts, appealing sections, and emphasis on local issues. (247-248)
• Digital strategies include podcasts, mobile feeds, and online advertising, though the advertising doesn’t bring in enough revenue to support the paper.
• Some papers use paywalls to generate revenues as well. These have been, for the most part, insufficient ways to generate revenue through circulation. (249)

The Future of Newspapers Versus the Future of Journalism

• The newspaper industry is still searching for a viable business model.
• Increasing numbers of local communities are without a local newspaper outlet.
• Some argue that society would suffer without newspapers, and that argument might guilt some people into offering support to journalistic enterprises.
• Others say the best forms of journalism do not necessarily come from traditional newspaper companies. Investigative journalism nonprofits are filling an important role. (249-251)

Ethics and New Models of Journalism

• Some claim that competition within journalism is unethical and destructive to the profession. They cite in particular two activities that devalue the work of journalism:
• Sites that use newspapers’ work without paying,
• Content farms that develop quick content on trending topics in order to draw web traffic. (251-253)
• NiemanLab Predictions for Journalism 2016 http://www.niemanlab.org/collection/predictions-2016/
• Long-form journalism starts a new chapter http://www.theguardian.com/media/2010/aug/30/long-form-journalism
• Digital Media Ethics http://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/digital-media-ethics/
• What are the boundaries of today’s journalism, and how is the rise of digital changing who defines them?
• http://www.niemanlab.org/2015/04/what-are-the-boundaries-of-todays-journalism-and-how-is-the-rise-of-digital-changing-who-defines-them/
• Meet the robots writing your news articles: The rise of automated journalism http://metro.co.uk/2014/07/10/meet-the-robots-writing-your-news-articles-the-rise-of-automated-journalism-4792284/
• The Podcasting Scene Will Explode http://www.niemanlab.org/2015/12/the-podcasting-scene-will-explode/
• Serial Podcast (long-form investigative journalism in a podcast) https://serialpodcast.org/
• A History of Clickbait: The First 100 Years http://io9.gizmodo.com/a-history-of-clickbait-the-first-100-years-1530683235
• How Facebook Is Changing the Way Its Users Consume Journalism http://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/27/business/media/how-facebook-is-changing-the-way-its-users-consume-journalism.html?_r=0
• Algorithms, clickworkers, and the befuddled fury around Facebook Trends http://www.niemanlab.org/2016/05/algorithms-clickworkers-and-the-befuddled-fury-around-facebook-trends/

Newspapers in the UK

Newspapers become a regular feature in Britain. After years of controlling the English press, the ruling monarchs finally give into the demands of Parliament. Newspapers are printed on a flatbed printing press similar to Gutenberg’s (see Chapter 7). Click on the link for more information on the history of newspapers in Great Britain.

http://ir.nul.nagoya-u.ac.jp/jspui/bitstream/2237/8163/1/M%26CVol2-Haig.pdf

John Peter Zenger Trial

In a landmark case, John Peter Zenger is charged with seditious libel for printing facts in his newspaper that reflected badly on the royal governor. The American jury found that, unlike in English law, truth could be used as a defense against libel. Even though a guilty verdict is the proper outcome under British law, Andrew Hamilton, Zenger's lawyer, persuades the jury that his client is innocent. The jury decision reflects an idea that became the First Amendment, that “Nature and the Laws of our country have given us a Right—the Liberty—both of exposing and opposing arbitrary Power . . . by speaking and writing Truth."

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iKMBNx0LVto

Why Were New York City Newspapers Burned in 1734?

Adversarial Press

Britain imposes a series of paper taxes, from the Stamp Act to the Townshend Acts, to finance war with the French. The policy angers the American colonialists and they begin to publish strong denunciations on the British colonial policy of taxation without representations. This contributes to increased belief in an adversarial press—a press that had the ability to argue with government.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9JJuVxtNOc https://www.boundless.com/political-science/media/role-media-in-politics/rise-adversarial-journalism/

Stamp Act of 1765

The First Amendment

The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which explicitly protects the press, is adopted. The Amendment reads: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.” This sets into law the right of the press to have an adversarial relationship with the government.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G1SCQPyFlIY&list=PL0BCFBB36C06D91C8

“The First Amendment and You” Episode 1, Part 1

The Cost of Newspapers

Daily newspapers tend to be supported by political parties and to be read by merchants and politicians. The papers are a nickel apiece, expensive for typical Americans-- and they are sold by subscription, a year in advance, which adds to the expense. In addition to the cost, widespread illiteracy discourages the growth of daily newspapers among all but the well-off and well-educated.

The Steam Powered Printing Press

A steam powered printing press, invented by Frederick Koenig, is used for the first time by the Times of London. The speed of the new press along with cheaper ways to make paper substantially lowers the per page cost of newspapers.

http://letterpressprinting.com.au/page58.htm

Literacy in Labor Unions

During this decade, early labor unions create newspapers specially for their members. Literacy among labor union members is growing. Yet, when the unions declined after this decade, their newspapers declined as well. A number of entrepreneurs took note that there might be an untapped audience for daily newspapers.

The Liberator

William Lloyd Garrison starts The Liberator, a weekly anti-slavery newspaper, in New England championing the non-violent abolition of slavery through moral persuasion. While its initial circulation is relatively limited (fewer than 400), its readership grows so that by the Civil War it has wide influence among anti-slavery groups.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s8GT2yNPJQ8

The American Experience - The Abolitionists - William Lloyd Garrison

The New York Sun

Benjamin Day starts New York Sun daily for a penny per issue. Its slogan is" It Shines for All." The slogan reflects Day’s desire to entice the general public, not just those with money, to read its material. Sold by hawkers in the street, the newspaper makes money one issue at a time. Within six months, the paper circulation reaches about 8000, almost twice that of its nearest rival. This marks the beginning of the Penny Press era.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEp3UhdswZg

“Making of a Newspaper” Circa 1929 The Sun (New York)

Frederick Douglass

Frederick Douglass, a former slave, publishes the North Star in Rochester, New York, inspired by Garrison’s The Liberator. The anti-slavery North Star takes the position that Garrison’s approach to emancipation by moral persuasion is not enough. Political action is necessary. This paper and its successor, Liberty Party Paper (begun in 1852 with Gerrit Smith), are influential in developing the ideology that guides strident political demands for the downfall of slavery.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7j0jvj4e4XU

America: The Story of Us -Frederick Douglass

The New York Herald

New York Herald, a penny newspaper, is innovative in appealing to different segments of the population within the same issue by using separate sections. Sections include a sports section, a critical review column, society news, and a financial section. These sections and the growth of reporters working for the paper herald a new approach to news by American newspapers.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/412447/New-York-Herald

Hoe’s Rotary Press

Increased newspaper circulation leads to the widespread use of Hoe’s rotary (or “type-revolving”) press. Instead of placing the type on a flatbed, Hoe puts it on a cylinder, with different parts of the cylinder holding type for different pages of the paper. By 1855, Hoe’s ingenious machine prints 20,000 sheets per hour. The new technology enables newspapers to print quickly and cheaply, befitting their large circulations.

http://historywired.si.edu/object.cfm?ID=399

Richard M. Hoe

Technological Advances

Reporters speed their words to the printing presses via carrier pigeon, Pony Express, the railroad, and eventually the telegraph. Practice of newsgathering develops with technology.

http://www.history.com/topics/telegraph/videos#the-telegraph-and-telephone

The Birth of Telecommunications

Bylines and Headlines

The byline (which identifies the story’s author) emerges, as does the date line (which tells where and when the reporter wrote it). Modern news conventions develop. Also emerging during this period are different sizes of headlines, which cue readers into the relative importance of stories. Those with larger headlines are designated as “more important” by the newspaper publisher, therefore they use the larger typeface to draw the reader’s attention to those stories.

The Associated Press

Seven New York City newspapers establish the Associated Press (AP) as a cooperative newsgathering organization. Newspapers in other cities join the service, discharges of membership the in return for sending it stories to the papers over the telegraph wires. The AP facilitates the national sharing of news.

http://www.ap.org/company/history/ap-history

The Inverted Pyramid

The “inverted pyramid” style of reporting evolves with the widespread use of the telegraph during and after the civil war. Writers summarize all the major facts at the beginning of the dispatch and then elaborate on the events after that initial summary. It is still the style used for most hard news stories today.

http://www.poynter.org/how-tos/newsgathering-storytelling/chip-on-your-shoulder/12754/writing-from-the-top-down-pros-and-cons-of-the-inverted-pyramid/

Newspaper Circulation Grows

The number of English-language general-circulation dailies increases from 489 in 1870 to 1,967 in 1900. Foreign-language newspapers also grow steeply in number and readership, which leads to a dramatic increase in newspaper circulation.

Advertising in Newspapers

A new business philosophy in newspapers develops: using advertising instead of circulation revenues for their profits. The percentage of newspaper revenue coming from advertising rose 50% in 1880 to 64% in 1910. This contributed to the advertising revolution in newspapers.

Full-Color Newspapers

Full-color presses, first used in Paris, France, are adapted in the United States and used especially for Sunday comics. Aesthetic changes in newspapers. In 1897, high-quality reproductions of photographs make their first appearance in the New York Tribune.

The Boston Sunday Herald

Yellow Journalism

The term “yellow journalism” is used for a newspaper characterized by irresponsible, fickle, and sensational news-gathering and exhibition. The rise of yellow journalism. The publishers of these papers use sensational stories of sex and murder, along with publicity gimmicks, to lure readers into buying their newspapers.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h0mjkLPvrQM

Yellow Journalism: Origins and Definition

The Spanish-American War

Rise of sensationalistic coverage of the Spanish-American War, led by publishers Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, who are competing for circulation in New York. When the battleship the U.S.S. Maine blows up in Havana Harbor, publisher William Randolph Hearst offers a $15,000 reward (which he advertises in his New York newspaper, The World) to the person who can prove who was responsible destroying the ship. When the United States goes to war with Spain over the incident, The New York Journal –American (also owned by Hearst) covers the conflict in antagonistic, highly emotional tones. In response to social and governmental indignation regarding the rise of yellow journalism, the newspaper industry turns to self-regulation. That includes the establishment of university schools and departments of journalism (University of Missouri in 1908 and Columbia in 1912)—often with the support of wealthy newspaper publishers. The goal of the schools is to turn journalism into a respected craft, with its own clear set of procedures, norms, and ethics.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IU5l4yQCpMM

Rise of the tabloids: the most popular of this sort of newspaper was the New York Daily News, which dubbed itself “New York's picture newspaper.” Like its imitators, in its earliest years the Daily News reflected the idea of a newspaper that had been stripped of real news (i.e., that which the new journalism schools were trying to promote). Instead, the reader got large doses of the entertainment part of the traditional paper: gossip, comic strips, horoscopes, advice columns, sports, and news about movie stars.

http://voiceseducation.org/content/sensationalism-inflammatory-words-and-history-tabloid-journalism

An ethic of objectivity develops among professional journalists, who increasingly develop formal rules and codes for journalism.

Competition From Other Media

The Great Depression and the rise of radio adversely impact the newspaper industry, as many advertisers switch to radio. Between 1937 and 1939, one-third of salaried employees in the newspaper industry lose their jobs as circulation numbers decline.

Newspaper Chains

In the midst of the Depression, powerful newspaper chains – – that is, companies that own a number of papers around the nation – –are established. The 1930’s saw the creation of newspaper chains, which led to the consolidated control by these chains over Americans’ news. By 1933, the six most powerful chains – – Hearst , Patterson – McCormick, Block, Ridder, and Gannett-- control about one quarter of all daily circulation in the United States. Hearst alone controls almost 14% of daily and 24% of Sunday newspaper circulation in 1935.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=otzmmr8iidI

The Rise of William Randolph Hearst

Emergence of the Television

By the late 1950s, most U.S. homes (86%) have at least one television set. Newspapers must now compete with another media format—the television. Like radio, television competes with newspapers for advertising revenue.

Television Set

Decline in Newspaper Circulation

Young readers migrate to free Web and app news sources such as blogs and link-collection (or aggregation) sites (for example, Google News). This development speeds up newspaper circulation declines.

Newspaper Revenue Decreases

A global recession along with huge debts of certain newspaper chains leads to major decreases in total newspaper revenues during 2008 and 2009. Newspaper industry woes deepen. The drop in print circulation due to people's use of the web for news makes the situation even more difficult for those in the industry.

Financial Crisis Depicted in Newspaper Headline

Six large newspaper companies file for bankruptcy protection under Chapter 11 of the U.S. bankruptcy code. Newspaper industry woes deepen leading some to wonder—is the newspaper industry dying?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cu3UQD9SrIo

The Death of American Newspapers

Migration to the Internet

The Seattle Post-Intelligencer moves to an online- only format to save money. The move to an online format by the Post-Intelligencer is just the beginning of what will become a significant migration of newspapers (or newspaper content) to the web. The Advance newspaper chain is the next to announce this migration when it states t will offer its Ann Arbor News only online.

http://stateofthemedia.org/2012/newspapers-building-digital-revenues-proves-painfully-slow/newspapers-by-the-numbers/

Kenneth Lerer: Hearst New Media Lecture

Closing of Rocky Mountain News

The Rocky Mountain News of Denver, Colorado, prints its final issue just two months shy of its 150th anniversary.

Original Content in Online News

ProPublica, an independent nonprofit news organization, becomes the first online news source to win a Pulitzer Prize.

Amazon acquires the Washington Post

Jeff Bezos, the founder of Amazon.com, pays $250 million for The Washington Post, ending 80 years of local ownership of the paper by the Meyer-Graham family.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnCYgLEt1QE

ABC 'This Week' Panel - Amazon's Jeff Bezos Buys the Washington Post

Declines in Advertising

Annual newspaper advertising revenue in the U.S. is $16.4 billion, down dramatically from $46.7 billion in 2004.

Automated Reporting

Using new “automation technology,” the Associated Press begins to release computer-generated rather than reporter-generated stories about company earnings.

Corporate Concern about Newspapers

Gannett and several other big media companies spin off their newspaper divisions.

Public Trust in Media at New Low

According to Gallup only 32% of Americans say they have a great deal or fair amount of trust in the mass media “to report the news fully, accurately and fairly”, the lowest level in Gallup polling history.

https://news.gallup.com/poll/195542/americans-trust-mass-media-sinks-new-low.aspx

Social Media Tops Newspapers as News Source

Pew Research Center finds 20% of U.S. adults say they get news via social media. The percent tops the number saying they reads newspaper (16%) for the first time. Television remains most popular medium for news. (49%)

http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/12/10/social-media-outpaces-print-newspapers-in-the-u-s-as-a-news-source/

Chapter 9: The Magazine Industry

Like books and newspapers, magazines existed before the magazine industry. Today’s magazine industry faces challenges similar to those discussed with the newspaper industry: how to attract advertiser support and how to adapt to new media platforms.

• Connect the importance of understanding magazine history to understanding magazines today.
• Describe the physical and digital production, distribution, and exhibition of different types of magazines.
• Explain the view that magazines are brands that need to follow their readers across a variety of converging platforms.
• Analyze ethical issues regarding the influence advertising has on magazine content.

The Development of Magazines

• The term “magazine” derives from the French term meaning “storehouse.” (257)
• The history of the magazine includes three key themes (257-260):
• The modern magazine did not arrive in a flash as the result of one inventor’s grand change.
• The magazine as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different historical periods.
• The magazine as a medium of communication existed long before the existence of magazines today.

An Overview of the Modern Magazine Industry

• Despite their immense variety, all magazines share two traits: they are collections of articles and are released on a regular schedule (although digital versions may include continual updates). (261)
• The five major types of magazines include the following (262-266):
• Business-to-business magazines (trade magazines) target a particular profession or industry. The Standard Rate and Data Service directory divides these specializations into more than 200 categories.
• Consumer magazines reach a variety of audiences whose members buy and consume products and services advertised within them. (See Table 9.1 for circulation figures for magazines on various platforms.)
• Literary reviews and academic journals reach targeted audiences in academia, politics, or business. These are generally nonprofit, funded by associations or foundations, not advertising.
• Newsletters reach small numbers of readers and include specialized information for people in a variety of businesses or other areas of professional life.
• Comic books tell stories through pictures and words. They differ from graphic novels, which are longer and have more developed narratives.

Financing Magazine Publishing

• Magazines bring in money through advertising and through readers’ subscriptions (266-268, see Table 9.2 for the top ten magazine advertisers). Circulation declines make advertisers cautious about spending to reach audiences in magazines.
• The audiences for controlled circulation magazines are determined by publishers. They target specific audiences of interest to advertisers, which fund the publication. (267)
• Custom magazines are both consumer magazines and controlled circulation magazines with the goal of reaching customers. (267)
• Paid-circulation magazines are financed by subscription.
• Advertisers considering space in these magazines look at their circulation, or the number of units made available or sold during a publication cycle. (268)
• Magazines also will offer media kits to help entice advertisers. (268)
• These kits will highlight the market segments that the magazine can reach. (268-269)

Digital Circulation

• Subscriptions to digital editions of magazines, intended to help boost the traditional print versions’ readership, have been disappointing. (269)
• Most magazine executives feel an online presence, such as a website or a tablet format edition, is a necessity in this age of convergence. (269)
• These editions use interactive features to draw and keep audiences. (269)
• Magazine media kits will differentiate the audiences for different versions of the publication to help advertisers select ad placement options. (270)

Production in the Magazine Industry

Production in the magazine industry has five goals:

• Drawing an attractive audience: magazines attempt to reach upscale readers (and others of potential interest to advertisers) and develop content with such readers in mind. (272)
• Drawing a loyal audience: magazines attempt to build brand loyalty among their readers, so the readers become engaged with the content and presumably with the ads. (272)
• Creating a conducive environment: magazines generate content that is conducive to the presentation of the ads that are published. (272-273)
• Setting an efficient price: magazines are able to provide special editions that reach specific and lucrative audiences, even though the cost per thousand (CPM) for such special audiences may be higher than for nonspecially targeted editions. (273)
• Producing the magazine as a branded event, bringing together the magazine’s image across multiple media platforms. This includes “brand extensions” such as conferences, education programs, etc. (273-274)

Distribution in the Magazine Industry

Magazine distribution refers to the channels through which the magazine reaches its exhibition point, either in print or online. (274)

• Subscription and single-copy sales are the traditional methods of distribution. (275)
• The print magazine distribution system involves a distributor, a wholesaler, and a retailer. (275)
• Digital magazine distribution occurs through websites or apps. (275-276)

Exhibition in the Magazine Industry

• Although publishers don’t face too much inference with online exhibitors, print exhibition is much more competitive. (277)
• Most rack space goes to larger circulation magazines, and thus smaller magazines struggle to get a slot. (277)
• Larger companies will pay retail stores slotting fees to ensure their products get prominent placement. (277)
• Single-copy exhibition displays in stores are supplied by only two wholesalers. (277)
• Single-copy sales are on the decline, which creates a problem for magazines that use single-copy sales to get subscriptions. (277)

Media Ethics and the Magazine Industry

• Advertising is at the center of complaints about the magazine industry. In particular, critics worry about advertiser influence on magazine content. (278)
• Some industry executives find the relationship between advertisers and content both beneficial and inevitable. (278)
• Some magazines, such as  Time , have policies that keep content and advertisers separate. (278)
• The labeling of advertising that does not clearly look different from editorial content must not be labeled “advertisement” as a way to protect consumers. (278)
• Other magazines are more fluid in their integration of advertisers’ products and messages within their content, particularly in online editions. (279-280)
• Media literacy asks whether this blurring of the line is unethical or beneficial. (280-281)
• Twenty-Two Tweetable Truths about Magazine Media (PDF) http://www.magazine.org/sites/default/files/22_Tweetable_Truths_PDF_2.pdf#overlay- context=insights-resources/research-publications/magazine-media-factbook-2015
• Magazine Media Factbook 2015 http://www.magazine.org/insights-resources/magazine-media-factbook-2015
• In Its Third Year, New York Magazine's Vulture Festival Is Bigger Than Ever It's also an opportunity for sponsors to connect with cultured millennials
• http://www.adweek.com/news/press/its-third-year-new-york-magazines-vulture-festival-bigger-ever-171627
• Ad of the Day: This Porsche Magazine Ad Uses LEDs to Light Up the Car's Insides Brand follows its Fast Company hologram with cool Inc. placement
• http://www.adweek.com/news/advertising-branding/ad-day-porsche-magazine-ad-uses-leds-light-cars-insides-170805
• Paper & Paint – Tablet Magazine https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/campaigns/flugger-paper-paint-tablet-magazine.html
• The Engagement Project: the VICE Guide to Engagement https://www.thinkwithgoogle.com/articles/the-vice-guide-to-engagement.html

Magazines in England

Magazines begin to be published regularly in England. Two prominent magazines, The Tatler and The Spectator, serve up both politics and literature by famous writers of the day. Unfortunately for the publishers of these magazines, widespread illiteracy and the high cost of magazines mean that many people do not purchase them.

Magazines in the U.S.

The first magazines appear in the United States. Andrew Bradford’s The American Magazine, published in Philadelphia, precedes Benjamin Franklin's General Magazine by three days. With the publication of these two magazines, the industry officially launches in the U.S.

The American Magazine and Historical Chronicle

Prohibitive Cost of Magazines

Cost of magazines prevents the widespread publication of magazines in the U.S. Magazines are too expensive, and the illiteracy rate is too high, for periodicals to gain a foothold among ordinary Americans. As a result, fewer than 100 magazines are published in the U.S.

Magazines as Mass Media

The transformation of magazines into commercial operations. During this period, between 4000 and 5000 new magazines are introduced in the U.S. Like their counterparts in the newspaper and book industries, magazine entrepreneurs take advantage of the rising levels of education, the new steam-powered presses, and postal loopholes to expand the market. Most of the new magazines die quickly, but theses magazine launches signify that business people are beginning to see a large market emerging for periodicals.

Harper’s Weekly

Godey’s Lady’s Book

Godey's Lady’s Book, founded in 1830, reaches a circulation of 150,000 readers and becomes the most widely circulated magazine before the Civil War. The magazine contains poetry, engravings, articles and other features from well-known artists and writers. The magazine was managed by editor Sarah Hale (also credited with writing “Mary Had a Little Lamb”) from 1837-1877, who facilitated the publishing of many original American manuscripts within the magazine, even having three special issues in which all the contributors were women.

http://www.uvm.edu/~hag/godey/contents.html

The Postal Act

The Postal Act of 1879, intended to create distinctions between different classes of mail, lowered postage rates for magazines, making them more affordable and easily circulated.

Advertising in Magazines

Magazines increase their reliance on advertisements as a source of revenue. During this great American industrial boom, manufacturers want to reach out to potential customers. Magazine publishers, such as Frank Munsey, realize that they can make a lot of money by selling advertisers space in his magazines, enabling them to reach large numbers of readers. They attract those large numbers of readers by charging low subscription prices. This period marks the beginning of mass circulation magazines in the United States.

http://uwf.edu/dearle/enewsstand/enewsstand_files/Page577.htm https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzNL_6oZbq0

Captains of Industry: Frank A. Munsey

Ladies Home Journal

Cyrus H.K. Curtis launches Ladies’ Home Journal with his wife, Louisa Knapp Curtis, as editor. The magazine would become one of the most influential of the coming century, and the Curtis Publishing Company in Philadelphia would become a magazine and advertising powerhouse.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IptWcMseFkk

Captains of Industry: Cyrus Curtis

Advertising Revenues Over Customer Revenues

Frank Munsey drops the price of Munsey’s Magazine to ten cents and the subscription cost to one dollar. That causes the circulation to skyrocket.

Ladies Home Journal Sells One Million Copies Per Month

Ladies Home Journal becomes the best-selling magazine in the United States, selling one million copies per month. In addition to promoting ideas on interior decorating and the appearance of cities, the magazine campaigns for women's suffrage, pacifism, environmental conservation, improved local government, and sex education. Click here for the article, “Why Women Should Vote.”

http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtid=3&psid=3609

The Ladies’ Home Journal

The Saturday Evening Post

Curtis Publishing’s Saturday Evening Post, America's best-selling magazine, sells more than 1 million copies a week. Aimed to appeal broadly to all American adults, this magazine published works by some of the best U.S. writers of the time: Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Theodore Dreiser, Jack London, Willa Cather, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Sinclair Lewis, among others.

http://www.saturdayeveningpost.com/sections/archives http://www.nbcnews.com/video/nightly-news/48155130

“Modern Classic” NBC News Story on The Saturday Evening Post

Rise of Alternative Magazines

The rise of upscale and topical magazines such as The New Yorker and Business Week as alternatives to mass circulation magazines.

http://www.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_time_history,00.shtml

Selection at a Magazine Stand

Competition with Television

Magazines must now compete with television. By the late 1950s, 86% of U.S. homes have at least one television set. The huge popularity of the television begins to hurt mass circulation, even popular magazines such as The Saturday Evening Post.

A Family Watching Television

Magazines Geared for Specific Audiences

The era of mass circulation magazines ends, and a new era of specialized, audience-targeted magazines begins. Lifestyle-oriented magazines such as Psychology Today and Self that target specific audiences that advertisers would like to reach allow companies to make substantial profits with magazines that reach hundreds of thousands, or even tens of thousands, of people instead of millions.

http://themediaonline.co.za/2012/07/niche-magazines-giving-readers-a-sense-of-ownership/

Magazine Conglomerates

Time Warner's Time Inc., Hearst Corporation’s magazines division, Advance Publications, and Meredith Publishing Company dominate consumer magazines.

http://www.cjr.org/resources/

First Online Magazine

HotWired (sister publication of Wired magazine) launches as the first commercial magazine on the web. This marks the beginning of the magazine industry’s entry into the digital age. HotWired also serves as the site of the first online banner ad.

http://www.wired.com/thisdayintech/2010/10/1027hotwired-banner-ads/

Apple releases the iPad. Magazine companies see apps on tablets such as the iPad as a possible way to gain many advertisers and readers in the digital era.

An iPad Displaying Magazine Titles

Apple’s Magazine Apps

Apple requires magazines offering apps on iTunes to adopt Apple’s new subscription system for magazines and newspapers, Newsstand, and share any resulting revenues with Apple.

http://www.businessinsider.com/best-ipad-magazines-2011-5?op=1

Reader's Digest

Reader’s Digest is founded by DeWitt and Lila Wallace.

The New Yorker

The New Yorker is founded, and quickly becomes a preeminent forum for long-form journalism and fiction.

Activist Magazines

Gay rights organizations like the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis begin to publish alternative magazines (the Mattachine Review and The Ladder) advocating for the civil and political rights of gay and lesbian Americans.

Young third-wave feminists begin to publish “zines”: creative, collage-driven, Xeroxed handmade magazines that promote feminist causes.

Seventeen pledges to limit altering of women's photos

In response to an online petition by a 14-year-old reader, Seventeen magazine pledges not to digitally alter the body sizes or face shapes of the young women it features.

Charlie Hedbo Shootings

Two gunmen open fire in the Paris headquarters of Charlie Hebdo, a French satirical weekly magazine, killing 12 and prompting worldwide debate over freedom of expression, violence and the limits of satire.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpvz7w6ilNk

Charlie Hebdo: Paris terror attack kills 12

Apple replaces Newsstand App

Apple ends its Newsstand app, and launches News, a new content-aggregation app that allows magazines and other publishers to deliver their content directly to users.

Flipboard Users Hit 145 Million

The magazine app, Flipboard, founded in 2010, hits a record hit of 145 million users and 11,000 publishers contributing content to the app.

Meredith Acquires Time Inc.

Iowa-based publishing company, Meredith, becomes the largest publisher in the U.S. after its acquisition of Time Inc.

Glamour Goes Online Only

After 80 years of publication Glamour’s last print issue will be January’s, moving to online only with its February edition.

https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/28/style/glamour-magazine-last-print-issue.html

Chapter 10: The Recording Industry

Like many other industries, the recording industry has been strongly affected by digital technologies, but the industry remains vocal in its claims of the devastating effects of piracy and video streaming services, which make money from advertising on music but which provide little compensation to music publishers or copyright holders.

• Sketch the history of the recording industry.
• Describe the enormous changes taking place in the industry as a result of digital technologies and convergence.
• Explain how a recording is developed, from the time an artist creates a song to the time the recording ends up in your collection.
• Explain the ways in which artists and recording companies make money.
• Decide where you stand on the major ethical issues facing the recording industry today.

The Rise of Records

• During the last century people’s experiences with music shifted from performance to consumption, from playing instruments to listening to recordings. (286)
• Three themes emerge in the history of sound recording (see Figure 10.1 for a timeline of music industry history):
• Sound (or audio) recordings did not arrive as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (286)
• Audio recording as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different periods. (287)
• The recording industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control audio recordings and how they reach an audience. (288-290)

An Overview of the Modern Recording Industry

• Ownership is international: the major players are the largest media conglomerates operating globally. (290-291)
• The three largest recording companies are Universal Music Group, Sony Music Entertainment, and Warner Music Group. (291)
• Though global companies, such businesses look for local and regional talent, as that is where the money seems to be. (291)
• Production is dispersed: There are thousands of smaller, independent record companies, and digital technology makes it easy for new players to jump in. Independents (indies) are now the fourth largest distributor of recorded music in the United States, after Sony. (291)
• Distribution is concentrated: The three major recording companies base their clout on domination of distribution worldwide. (291-292; see Table 10.1 for global revenues)
• Multiple factors determine whether people buy music. Men and women are equally likely. Caucasian people also are more likely, whereas Asians, African Americans, and Latinos are less likely. Those ages 55 and older are less likely to buy than those younger, particularly with digital purchases of music. (293)
• The turn toward digital and away from physical music products has grown since 2011, the year more digital recordings than physical were sold. Now physical represents just 18 percent of industry sales. (293; see Table 10.2 for a breakdown of digital and physical sales in the United States.)
• Singles versus albums:
• Singles are important for radio airplay, but companies and artists make their money from album sales. A single refers to one to two songs, whereas an album is a collection of songs. (293)
• Subscription and ad-supported streaming firms, such as Pandora, cut further into individual purchases of music. (294)
• Diverse music genres (294-296):
• Multiple types of recorded music genres are now available worldwide. In 2017, for the first time, R&B/hip-hop overtook rock music as the most popular genre. (294; see Table 10.3 for share of total volume by genre for audio consumption by format)
• Billboard now differentiates between songs streamed by paying subscribers and those streamed on ad-supported sites when reporting music consumption data. (295)

Production and the Recording Industry

• Artists and labels seek each other out, but the industry is still a tough one to break into. (296-297)
• A label is a division of a recording firm that releases a certain type of music and reflects a certain “personality” or image. (297)
• An A&R (artist and repertoire) person has the responsibility of locating and signing new talent for record labels. (297-298)
• Groups typically hire managers to coordinate their development. (298)
• Artists may belong to the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) or the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA). (298)
• The American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) collect royalties for the various uses of recorded music. The royalties are a source of income for artists and are of two types (299):
• Performance royalties are paid to the composer, publishers, and labels when material is used in front of audiences.
• Mechanical royalties are collected as a result of the sale of physical media (e.g., CDs) or digital downloads (songs, albums, ringtones.)
• A producer is the person who keeps projects on budget, produces the record and handles details such as booking studio musicians and clearing copyrights. They are compensated on a royalty basis (about 2 to 4 percent of total retail sales). (299)
• Compensating artists (299-300):
• Studio musicians who help make an album are typically paid by the hour, beginning at union scale.
• The major artists are paid in royalties.
• Overall, making money in music is not easy, and the amount earned depends on the music format.

Distribution in the Recording Industry

• Distribution is the key to success in the recorded music industry; major labels send their releases directly to retail outlets, but much of the distribution is handled by wholesalers who move products to various outlets; the wholesalers work with both the majors and the independents. (301-304)
• The major labels create buzz about an impending release, and this gives them an advantage with wholesalers and retailers. (303)
• Independent, self-produced artists get to keep more money from their sales but are less likely to get their albums into stores. (302)
• Promotion has the goal of generating audience excitement around a recording artist; convergence allows these industries to push this promotion across different media outlets. (303-304)
• The recording industry and the radio industry (304-305):
• Radio stations rely on record companies for products; record companies rely on radio for airplay that stimulates record sales.
• Radio programmers tend to be very conservative in their music selections, and they may add only one new release to their playlists per week; the competition is daunting to get a new release on air.
• The Broadcast Data System tracks every song played on radio stations; SoundScan records sales at retail outlets; trade publications track airplay and sales. These lists help radio programmers make airplay decisions.
• Music promotion techniques (305):
• Music promoters are constantly contacting program directors to influence the airplay of releases.
• Payola is an illegal payment of money to a program director or DJ for the on-air use of a release; this is regarded as bribery.
• Video, television, and movie promotions (305-306):
• Cross-platform distributor VEVO brings music videos to different platforms for Sony and Universal.
• Various cable TV channels and Internet websites have emerged as important promotion avenues for recorded music.
• TV series and movies are also used to highlight recorded music, especially the work of new artists.
• Concert tours (306-307):
• Tours generate a lot of money and afford the opportunity to promote the artist’s albums in a variety of media along the way.
• A local promoter may be involved in setting up a particular date and venue as one part of the tour.
• Live Nation is a promotion company that helps with making arrangements and sharing the financial risks.
• The majors are starting to see that more money comes in through concerts than record sales.

Exhibition in the Recording Industry

• Exhibition is divided into two broad categories: digital downloads and physical sales (307-310)
• Subscription services such as Spotify have seen sharp sales growth. (308)
• Digital downloads occur through such programs as iTunes, but it is not as robust a sales point as it was. (308-309)
• Physical sales still occur, but are declining. (309-310)
• Independent music stores are slightly growing on the sales of vinyl records. (309)

Ethical Issues in the Recording Industry

• There are divided ethical views about song lyrics.  (310-311)
• Rap lyrics in particular come under fire, with some advocates calling for their cleanup, and others asking for warning labels. Others claim that rappers are artists and are seeking free expression. (311)
• 'Music Isn't a Commodity': Warner Music CEO Stephen Cooper on That Streaming Milestone, the 'Value Grab' http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7370348/warner-music-ceo-stephen-cooper-digital-global-strategy
• 'It's a System That Is Rigged Against the Artists': The War Against YouTube http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7356794/youtube-criticism-labels-artists-managers-payouts
• For Free Songs, Video Trumps Audio http://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/24/arts/international/for-free-songs-video-trumps-audio.html?_r=0
• Data to Date: The Rapid Rise of Social and Streaming https://www.nextbigsound.com/industry-report/2015
• SoundCloud Starts Subscription Plan, Taking On Spotify and Apple http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/30/business/media/soundcloud-starts-subscription-plan-taking-on-spotify-and-apple.html
• In Shift to Streaming, Music Business Has Lost Billions http://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/25/business/media/music-sales-remain-steady-but-lucrative-cd-sales- decline.html?action=click&contentCollection=Media&module=RelatedCoverage&region=EndOfArticle&pgtype=article
• After Beyonce, Tidal's Exclusive Strategy Remains Its Best (Perhaps Only) Weapon http://www.billboard.com/articles/business/7341864/tidal-exclusive-content-strategy-beyonce-lemonade
• Grammys: This Is the Man Behind All Five Album of the Year Nominees http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/grammys/6874826/grammys-this-is-the-man-behind-all-five-album-of-the-year-nominees
• 2016 Grammys: Which Nominees Perform Best on YouTube, and Where Are They Most Popular? http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/grammys/6867118/2016-grammys-nominees-youtube-popularity-city

Sheet Music Publishing

Much sheet music publishing in the U.S. was facilitated by music stores or “serious” music publishers. The music publishing industry was relatively small. Music stores did sell songs that became popular through minstrel troupes or touring singers.

The Phonograph

Thomas Edison invents the first phonograph. The device records sound on a foil-covered cylinder. To play back the recording, the person would connect the needle to a hollow horn, place the stylus on the cylinder, and turn the crank.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qGJR2DZBfF0

Invention of Phonograph

The Graphophone

Chichester Bell (cousin of Alexander Graham Bell) and Charles Tainer introduce the graphophone, which improves upon the phonograph by using a wax-covered cylinder for recording rather than the phonograph’s more fragile tinfoil surface.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QZZqta2LVWo

Wax Recording History - Media Recording History 1870-1900

The Gramophone

Emile Berliner patents the gramophone, the first recording device to use flat disks rather than cylinders. The 12-inch discs have wide grooves play back at 78 revolutions per minute (RPMs). Berliner develops a system for using the zinc disks to make molds that would press out copies of the records on hard rubber. The molds can be used to make copies in almost unlimited numbers, thus making the disc more efficient than the cylinder.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhgKsFcetyk

History of the Gramophone

The Victrola

The Victor Talking Machine Company, led by a former colleague of Berliner, introduces the Victrola, an easy-to-use gramophone that is also a piece of furniture. The product helps speed adoption of the disc and solidifies the strength of Berliner’s Victor Talking Machine Company. Eventually the discs are pressed on both sides. Because of their wide grooves and 78 RPM speed, they are limited to less than five minutes of recording per side.

http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/berlhtml/berlgramo.html

Record Sales

Record sales hit 30 million. The number reflects the growing popularity of phonographs (both cylinder and disc players). The recordings from all the manufacturers are acoustic. That is, the sound waves themselves move the needle creating the record grooves. No microphone amplifies the sound.

Disc Production

Edison’s company begins producing discs. Consumers prefer Berliner’s flat discs over the cylinders because they sound better and are easier to store without breaking.

The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) is founded as the first U.S. performing rights organization by Victor Herbert in New York City. The aim is to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members, who are mostly writers and publishers associated with New York City's popular-music business neighborhood, called Tin Pan Alley. ASCAP's earliest members included the era's most active songwriters — Irving Berlin, Otto Harbach, James Weldon Johnson, Jerome Kern, and John Philip Sousa.

http://www.songwritershalloffame.org/exhibits/bio/C290

Sheet Music Sales

Sheet music sales fall dramatically. The public prefers to listen to recordings more than to learn to play the music. Prices fall to 10 cents from 40 cents in 1902. Songwriters begin to make most of their money from recordings rather than sheet-music sales.

Electric Recordings

A number of firms (most prominently Bell Telephone) work to develop “electric recordings,” which Victor Talking Machine and Columbia Phonograph release in 1926. Electric recordings involve the use of microphones to amplify the sounds of the artists who are recording the sound on records. This development transforms recordings, as they now can pick up sounds that are softer and more subtle than the acoustic technology could.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6eVr0X5UTVI

“Mr. Jelly Lord” by Jelly Roll Morton’s Incomparables (Gennett Electric 1926)

Commercial Radio

The development of commercial radio threatens record sales. Certain music genres radio stations won’t play—such as jazz, blues, hillbilly music, and ethnic songs—keep record companies going.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iuKx93NTgZ0

Oldtime Radio Documentary “The First 50 Years” The History of Radio Part I

Corporations Merge

Victor Talking Machine Company merges with the Radio Corporation of America, owner of the NBC radio networks. An indicator of radio’s power over music and competition with the recording industry.

The Great Depression hits the recording industry hard. Sales collapse to one tenth of previous levels as people rely more on radio for music. By 1935 only two major U.S. record companies remain in business, Victor and Columbia-Brunswick.

New Music Rejuvenates Sales

Record sales rebound as a result of swing bands and celebrity musicians. The new bands such as those led by Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, Artie Shaw, Tommy Dorsey, and Glenn Miller encourage youngsters to buy records. Radio begins to be seen as a way of publicizing records rather than as a competitor.

The Long-Playing Record

CBS introduces the LP (long-playing record). The new product is a 12-inch, fine-grooved disc played at a speed of 33 1/3 RPM. Each side of a 12-inch LP can play for more than 20 minutes—much longer than the traditional record. A year later RCA introduces a 45 RPM, 7-inch record that allows more time than the traditional record but less than CBS’ invention. Many record players allow for three record speeds—the traditional 78 RPM as well as the 45 RPM and 33 1/3 RPM. The “45s” tend to be used for an artist’s single song on each side, while the 33 1/3 becomes the actual long-playing record. Long-playing records allow musicians to try out ideas that were much longer and more conceptual than the traditional three-minute song that has been standard since the start of records.

http://www.history-of-rock.com/record_formats.htm

Emergence of Radio Stations

The rise of television leads radio stations to emphasize music as an economical element and to compensate for types of programming lost to TV. Development of formats allows greater targeting of audiences by record companies. College radio stations, for example, become useful vehicles for introducing “alternative” music, which most commercial stations would not touch until it had sold well in stores. Recording executives hate that they must rely on the interests of radio programmers to get their music out to potential customers. The pressure to get “airplay” encouraged bribes with money, drugs, and other gifts, and produced a number of scandals.

Technological Improvements Arrive

Improvements in technology encourage the purchasing of recorded music, driven by teen-oriented rock ‘n’ roll radio. First was the introduction of the longer-playing record formats, which permitted longer recordings. Second, the sound quality of records was enhanced by the introduction of high-fidelity and stereophonic record players. Third, almost unbreakable vinyl replaced highly breakable shellac as the material for making records.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GqEeP6YPkGM

RCA Victor - Living Stereo: 1958 Vinyl Records Educational Documentary

Audiotape Technology

Audiotape technology gives musicians more freedom in creating music. It also encourages manufacturers to create lightweight players that play music cartridges. The idea of recording and playing sound on tape originated in Germany in the years leading up to World War II; German tape recorders were discovered by Allied soldiers toward the end of the war. Tape technology allows musicians to create different sound tracks and then edit and combine them into the finished recording. Cartridge tape players powered by transistors and light batteries change the way audiences buy and listen to music. Now the albums of their choice were portable. For the first time, people could take them to the park or the beach and even play them in their cars.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MxRs2UESCjE http://vintagecassettes.com/_history/history.htm

RCA Victor - RCA Victor Presents…A Revolution in Tape

Compact Tapes

Phillips releases the first compact cassette tape and recorder.

Warner Cable starts the MTV (Music Television) cable network. The twenty-four hour network provides an opportunity for recording companies to reach target audiences beyond radio using music videos.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6jz65YRCy8

History of MTV

The Compact Disc

The compact disc is introduced. Analog sound reproduction is replaced by digital. The recording industry promoted the CD as an alternative to the standard vinyl record; it argued that CDs had superior sound, were more durable, and would never wear out. Although there were skeptics (and there still are), recorded music sales surged as people rebuilt their collections of records and tapes with CDs.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut_40U0t9pU

How It’s Made: Compact Discs

Napster P2P (peer-to-peer) file-sharing service is launched. It allows for the illegal distribution of copyrighted music and begins an era of rampant music “piracy.” Although people had long been making copies of records through their tape recorders, the analog duplication method degraded the sound quality, while digital reproductions are identical to the originals.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FP1N-U4VGFM

1999-2011 The History of Napster: Two Extremes with the Same Name

Apple releases its iPod. The iPod makes it possible to for people to store up to 1000 songs and listen to digital MP3 files in a sleek, portable format. Although other MP3 players started entering the market in 1998, the iPod quickly became the standard for portable digital music.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=saijiY36pzY

iPod History (2001-2010)

iTunes Store

Apple allows users to purchase songs on iTunes, its online music store. In addition to selling full albums, customers have the option to purchase individual songs starting at $0.99 each.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B2n86TROxzY

Apple Music Event 2003-iTunes Music Store Introduction

Recording Industry Lawsuits

The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) files 261 lawsuits against people it claims have illegally downloaded and distributed copyrighted music.

Tracking of Digital Music Sales

Nielson SoundScan, a sister company of the industry trade magazine Billboard, begins to include digital music sales in its famous popularity charts in which they provide sales data about the most popular albums and singles. Digital music has become mainstream.

http://www.youtube.com/user/BillboardMagazine

YouTube for Billboard Magazine

Digital Music Sales

Digital recordings make up a bit more than 50% of the unit sales of recordings in the U.S. Digital music has become mainstream and is having a major impact on how the record industry functions since fewer and fewer people are purchasing full albums online or physical CDs at the stores.

http://money.cnn.com/2012/01/05/technology/digital_music_sales/index.htm

Streaming Services

Streaming music sales outpace CD sales for the first time

Tracking of Streaming Services

Billboard begins to track on-demand streaming (via sources like Spotify and Google Play) as a component of its Billboard 200 chart, which tracks the top 200 albums of the week.

Rise of Streaming Services

Jay-Z and other celebrity musicians announce the launch of Tidal, a more artist-led service than others that offers higher-quality sound.  Apple debuts Apple Music, a subscription streaming service to make up for the downtown in its sales of individual songs and albums on iTunes.

Artists Percentage of Revenues

A Citigroup report states that music artists received only 12 % of the $43 billion industry in 2017.

Spotify Sued for $1.6 Billion

Wixen Music Publishing sues Spotify for using their music catalog without proper licensing or compensation, the latest of several lawsuits for the streaming service. The suit is settled a year later.

https://www.spin.com/2018/12/spotify-settles-1-6-billion-lawsuit-with-wixen-music-publishing/

Stream Ripping

32% of consumers worldwide illegally download music through stream ripping, according to IFPI (International Federation of Phonographic Industry.)

Chapter 11: The Radio Industry

Digital sources of music, including MP3s and online streaming services, have deeply affected terrestrial radio, which attempts to compensate through targeting specific audience segments and joining online activities.

• Sketch the history of the radio industry.
• Explain the relationship between advertising and programming.
• Detail the role of market research in the radio industry.
• Examine critically the issues surrounding the consolidation of radio station ownership.
• Discuss ways in which new digital technologies are challenging traditional radio.

The Rise of Radio

Three themes emerge in the history of radio (see Figure 11.1 for a timeline of radio’s history):

• Radio as we know it did not arrive in a flash as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (316)
• Radio as a medium of communication developed as a result of social, legal, and organizational responses to technology during different periods. (317-318)
• Technology was particularly important to radio’s development. A patent trust was developed so that companies could share the patents and keep other companies out of the industry. (317)
• U.S. courts broke the patent trust as a monopoly, paving the way for advertiser support, networks, and federal regulatory bodies to serve the “public interest.” (317)
• The radio industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control audio channels and their relations to audiences. (320)
• Audio channels were broadcast through AM (amplitude modulation) and FM (frequency modulation). (320)

An Overview of the Terrestrial Radio Industry

• Despite competition for audiences and advertisers, the number of radio stations has grown. However, ownership of stations in and around big cities has grown concentrated. (321)
• Nielsen, the company that measures radio audiences, says more Americans tune into AM/FM radio than watch TV or use digital devices. Radio’s strength is its portability. But at-home listening is in decline. (322)
• The demographics of radio listeners are changing. (see Figure 11.2)
• The industry can be divided into AM and FM stations and into commercial and noncommercial stations, each of them with characteristic formats. (323-324)
• Radio market size (see Table 11.1):
• Market size tends to determine the number of stations available to consumers. (324)
• Program format segmentation has accompanied audience segmentation. (325)

Production in the Radio Industry

• A radio station’s format is governed by four parameters: the style of music the station plays, the time period of the music’s release, the music’s activity level (its dynamic impact), and the music’s sophistication (simplicity vs. complexity). (325-327, see Table 11.2 for a listing of top formats among stations)
• There are numerous program formats, sometimes determined with the help of a format consultant. (See https://newsgeneration.com/broadcast-resources/guide-to-radio-station-formats/ for a guide to radio formats.)
• The term narrowcasting refers to radio’s ever more specific targeting of audience segments. (327)
• Radio programmers try to determine the listening patterns of their audiences to effectively segment them. Consultants help stations develop personalities that listeners can readily recognize by means of so-called interstitials (jingles, speech patterns, etc.). (328)
• The general manager is in charge of the station’s entire operation, and the program director is in charge of maintaining the station’s format or sound; on-air talents work within the format and have several responsibilities during a typical on-air shift. (328-329)
• In order to maintain the integrity of the station format, DJs pull music from the station’s established playlist, formulated from audience research involving burn music tests and focus groups. (330-331)
• Stations use a so-called “format clock” or “format wheel” (a circular chart) to help on-air personnel maintain the requirements of the format (331; see Figure 11.6, p. 332)
• Morning and afternoon drive times are the periods of the day when most stations have their largest audiences and when the advertising rates are highest. (332)

Distribution in the Radio Industry

• Networks and syndicators provide programming geared for specific formats and aimed at specific audience targets. (333)
• Format networks provide a subscribing station with all of its programming, and automatic technology keeps the station on the air and running; such stations have little or no local programming. (333-334)
• Syndicated programming comes to stations often without costs. Instead, a barter allows the program to air and the syndicator gets to keep several minutes to sell advertising. (334)

Exhibition in the Radio Industry

• In radio, the exhibition point is the moment at which the program is broadcast. (335)
• There are several different kinds of advertising in radio: spot advertising with messages from major national advertisers, network advertising from the networks, local advertising from local businesses, digital advertising from a station’s website and/or app, and off-air revenue such as staged concerts. Local advertising, in particular, plays an important role in generating revenues for local stations. (335)
• Advertisers rely on research companies for information about radio station audiences; research is based on keeping listening diaries, portable people meters, streaming audio measurement, and focus groups. (336-337)
• Promotions such as contests or events are used to highlight advertisers and provide responses from listeners to advertisers. (338)
• Poor ratings often lead to changes in personnel and sometimes result in format changes, even though this is a risky move. (338-339)

Radio and the New Digital World

• Terrestrial radio has seen plummeting profits as audiences turn to other digital sources of music. (339)
• Satellite radio requires a special receiver. Sirius XM Radio provides subscription-based programming. (See Figure 11.7 on p. 340; 339-340)
• Online radio, also called audio streaming, uses the technologies at the core of the Internet. Two types include streaming by category or interest and streaming on demand. (341-342)

Traditional Radio’s Responses to Digital Music

• Although digital options do cut into terrestrial radio’s industry, some people see power in the curation function of traditional radio, meaning that radio still tells people about new music. (343)
• HD, or hybrid digital/analog radio, expands the number of stations available on a given frequency. (343)
• But digital options also allow and encourage curation among friends and other listeners. (343)
• One advantage is that most cars still come with radios, although connectivity in vehicles to mobile devices may prove challenging to terrestrial radio. (343)
• Terrestrial stations also join the online activities, including site streams, listener incentives, and other features. (343-344)

Media Ethics and the Construction of Radio Audiences

Three questions to ask about audience research (345-346):

• How do the methods used in audience research affect the kinds of facts collected about the people who use a medium?
• How do these facts, in turn, lead to certain ideas or pictures of those people?
• How do these ideas and pictures affect the extent to which, and the way in which, advertisers want to spend money to reach them?
• Electronic Smoke Signals: Native American Radio in the United States http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/electronic-smoke-signals-native-american-radio-united-states
• This Machine Builds Movements: The Case for Indigenous Community Radio http://intercontinentalcry.org/this-machine-builds-movements-28452/
• Aggregators Help Radio Reach Online Audiences http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/business/media/two-apps-tunein-and-iheart-radio-put-radio-online.html?ref=technology
• Taylor Swift Scuffle Aside, Apple’s New Music Service Is Expected to Thrive http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/29/business/apple-can-skate-by-taylor-swift-but-not-product-missteps.html
• To Apple, Love Taylor http://taylorswift.tumblr.com/post/122071902085/to-apple-love-taylor
• Painting on a Radio Canvas: KCHUNG Gives Los Angeles Artists a Voice on the Airwaves http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/02/arts/design/kchung-gives-los-angeles-artists-a-voice-on-the-airwaves.html
• Low Power Radio http://www.prometheusradio.org/low_power_radio
• Radio Survivor: Low Power FM Watch http://www.radiosurvivor.com/category/noncommercial-radio-2/community-radio/lpfm/lpfm-watch/
• Streaming Music is Gaining on Traditional Radio Among Younger Music Listeners http://www.npd.com/wps/portal/npd/us/news/press-releases/streaming-music-is-gaining-on-traditional-radio-among-younger-music-listeners/
• Don’t Count AM/FM Radio Out Just Yet http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/ten_years_in_your_ears/2014/12/the_future_of_terrestrial_radio_in_the_age_of_podcasts.html

Italian inventor and engineer Guglielmo Marconi succeeds in sending wireless messages over long distance using Morse code. The company reinforces radio’s commercial shipping and naval military potential. Radio operators hear the code via headphones.

Guglielmo Marconi Showing Demo of Radio TX/RX

The Radio Transmitter

Marconi patents the first radio transmitter. Because the Italian government shows no interest in Marconi’s find, he takes it to England, where people quickly see its value to the far-flung British Empire. The Marconi Company is formed to equip the commercial and military ships of England, the United States, and other countries with wireless telegraphy for communicating with one another and with shore points around the world.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VM3JEUk6Q2s

Guglielmo Marconi and the Invention of Radio

Reginald Fessenden

Reginald Fessenden manages to broadcast speech and music with Marconi’s device. This technology further increases the technology’s business and military utility.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hursvj69An8

Guricht: Birth of Radio

The Audion Vacuum Tube

U.S. inventor Lee de Forest patents the Audion vacuum tube. This invention makes it possible for people to listen to the radio in groups through speakers. He envisioned stations sending out continuous music, news, and other material that people can listen to in various venues, including their homes.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6IeuC8DSvg

AT&T Archives - Bottle of Magic

The Radio Act of 1912

Congress passes Radio Act of 1912. It empowers the Secretary of Commerce to issue licenses to parties interested in radio broadcasting and to decide what frequencies should be used for what kinds of services. The broadcasters could use any frequency they wanted, as long as the frequency they used was within the designated range of public frequencies.

The U.S. Navy and Domestic Radio

During World War I, the U.S. Navy takes control of domestic radio for military purposes. After the war, the Navy seeks Congressional permission to retain control over radio for reasons of national security. The rationale is that if enemies of the United States got control of radio stations, they could disseminate propaganda that could be damaging to the interests of the country.

Privatization of Radio Broadcasts

Congress decrees that broadcasting is to be a privately sponsored enterprise. They have major broadcast patents. Their goal is to control the new radio business through patents on the transmission and reception of signals.

Vintage Radio

Radio Companies Begin Stations

Westinghouse Corporation founds KDKA radio station in Pittsburgh with the purpose of providing programming over the air so people will buy Westinghouse radio sets. The station is the nation’s first commercial broadcast station. RCA, GE, and AT&T also start stations during the next few years. Stores also get in on the action, using in-store stations as publicity for the radios they sell. Sears in Chicago calls its station WLS, World’s Largest Store.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dMujQke4mMo http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dt20ra.html

KDKA Pittsburgh—1st Commercial Broadcast

Selling of Radio Spots

AT&T allows the Queensboro Realty Company to pay $50 each for five “talks” on AT&T’s New York City radio station, the WEAF. Queensborough’s aim is to extol properties it has for sale. This activity marks the start of radio advertising.

Emergence of Radio Networks

The earliest radio networks, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) and United Independent Broadcasters, are founded. By that time, AT&T had sold its broadcast stations to RCA, so the company owned two stations in New York. It therefore started two NBC networks, the Red and the Blue, which carried different programs.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljMYdnrfky4

The earliest radio network, the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) is formed.

Columbia Broadcasting System

United Independent Broadcasters is reorganized into the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS). Though it struggled during its early months, CBS eventually stabilized and became a formidable competitor to NBC.

Federal Radio Commission (FRC)

The Radio Act of 1927 creates the Federal Radio Commission (FRC) to issue radio licenses and bring order to nation’s radio airwaves. Because until now any station with a license can claim any radio frequency, stations are broadcasting on top of one another. The FRC kicks some stations off the air and tells the remaining ones the maximum power at which they could broadcast. These stations getting the best deals are generally commercial broadcasters, and often they are network affiliates. Educational and religious stations were consigned to inferior positions on the dial, if they stayed on the air at all.

http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Federal_Radio_Commission.html

FDR’s Fireside Chats

News slowly develops into an important part of radio. The major networks create their own news divisions and beef them up during the Spanish Civil War and the outbreak of World War II in Europe. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt recognized the importance of radio for informing the nation and embarked on a series of radio talks to promote his administration’s policies—these popular broadcasts became known as “fireside chats.”

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jt9f-MZX-58

Fireside Chat 1

Entertainment on the Radio

Varied entertainment genres develop in radio. Network radio programs include morning talk shows, afternoon soap operas, and after-school children’s programs as well as music variety programs, situation comedies, and drama series in the evenings. The networks also schedule weekend public service programs. Local stations schedule variety and talk programs, carry syndicated radio shows (sent to them on records), and play recorded music. Ratings companies develop to measure programs’ popularity. Many of the actors on the radio shows become major stars the many of the shows being aired last for years.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nRp2u8d7lrg

Early 1930s Radio Broadcasting

The Federal Communications Act

The Federal Communications Act of 1934 turns the Federal Radio Commission into a larger Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The Act also held that the spectrum on which radio waves are broadcast constitute a public resource, and in return for the use of this resource, the FCC retained the right to make certain demands of broadcasters. The FCC is empowered to review station activities and revoke their licenses if they are not operating in “the public interest, convenience and necessity.” The law does not spell out the meaning of this phrase, and the revocation of a license is extremely rare.

Frequency Modulation (FM) Radio

Columbia University engineer Edwin Armstrong invents frequency modulation (FM) radio. From the start, leading radio executives realized that the static-free sound of FM was far superior to the sound produced by the AM (amplitude modulation) technology upon which existing radio transmitters and sets were based. Broadcasters worried that their huge investment in AM would be threatened if they developed FM as a substitute. They also worried that the development of a whole new set of FM stations would reduce their profits by dividing both audiences and advertising money. So they pressured the FCC to stall the allocation of FM radio stations. The companies that have FM stations simply use them to simulcast their AM programming.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7W81WCb4yg

Tribute to Armstrong and History of FM

American Broadcasting Company (ABC)

NBC Blue is sold and becomes the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Over time, ABC becomes a radio and television broadcast powerhouse.

Transistor Radio

The transistor is invented as a smaller and more efficient replacement for the Audion vacuum tube. The invention leads to the minimization of radio receivers. Now radio is something that people can literally take with them throughout the day.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdEG_5zIsks

Invention of the Transistor

Radio Networks Become Television Networks

NBC, CBS, and ABC begin to shift the profits of their radio networks into building television networks. Some of radio’s biggest stars—Jack Benny, George Burns, Ed Wynne—moved their programs to TV, and a number of other entertainers—Milton Berle, Sid Caesar—become major celebrities as a result of the television. Advertisers follow these stars and begin purchasing ad spots on TV.

Music Takes Over the Radio

Audiences and advertisers leave network radio for television. Local radio stations begin to program specific types of music to reach audiences. “Rock and Roll” stations aimed at the growing teen market become popular. Local radio stations thrive as transistor radios allow people to listen to radio music virtually everywhere. Suddenly, the medium had a new life, and companies rushed to get new radio licenses from the FCC. The number of stations jumps dramatically, from about 1,000 in 1946 to nearly 3,500 in the mid-1950s.

FM Radio Separates Itself From AM Radio

The FCC passes rule that prohibits companies from simulcasting more than 50 percent of their AM broadcasts on their FM stations. FM stations, looking for things to play and not having many commercials, developed formats that played long cuts of songs or even entire albums, an approach that AM stations resisted. Many listeners migrated to FM; they liked the music and the static-free sound.

Programming for Specific Audiences

Radio stations increasingly tailor their programming for audience of particular social categories. Industry consultants helped station executives relate particular social categories (age, race, gender, ethnicity) to particular formats (album-oriented rock, Top 40, middle of the road, country, and multiple variations of these) to signal to people scanning the airwaves whether or not a station was for them.

Modern Car Radio Interface

The Walkman

Sony releases the Walkman, a portable cassette player. Sony also releases a compact and extremely lightweight headset for the player. The Walkman represented the first major outdoor competition with portable radio. People could buy or create cassette tapes and play them while walking, bike riding, or reading. By 1995, total production of the various Walkman models reached 150 million units.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vs5FqAisIJc&list=PL27D87F839C13E92E

Sony Walkman- Design Classics (series of three films)

Internet Talk Radio

Carl Malamud creates the first internet talk radio station, calling it “Internet Talk Radio.” It is the first of several pioneering activities of the 1990s that experiment with streaming audio.

http://museum.media.org/radio/

Telecommunications Act of 1996

Congress passes the Telecommunications Act of 1996. eliminating the cap on nationwide radio station ownership and deregulating the market substantially. This sparked the creation of large radio conglomerates, most notably Clear Channel Communications, which controlled large proportions of radio advertising in markets across the country.

http://transition.fcc.gov/telecom.html

Napster’s creation encourages the sharing of songs via the internet. The availability of music on this new digital platform greatly impacts the radio industry as it allows people to create their own playlists and actually download the music they hear.

http://www.pewinternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2009/The-State-of-Music-Online_-Ten-Years-After-Napster.pdf

Satellite Radio

The first satellite radio companies, Satellite CD Radio (the precursor to Sirius Satellite Radio) and XM Satellite radio, develop, raising money to launch satellites into orbit shortly after the year 2000.

Pandora streaming radio founded. Through this free streaming service, users can have Pandora generate their own “stations” by selecting artists that they like and providing feedback (“thumbs up” or “thumbs down”) on the songs the program puts on your station. While the station is free, users do have to listen to commercials every so often.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DNWCyn9TTFc

Pandora: An Inside Look at the New Service

Rhapsody Music

Rhapsody Music allows people to choose their music. Similar to Pandora, except users have to pay a subscription fee to use Rhapsody. In exchange for paying for the fee, there are no commercials). Rhapsody also offers the opportunity for users to download music on the spot with the click of their mouse, for a discounted rate. The service also allows you to create custom playlists.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OW92gd24K60

Explaining the Rhapsody Internet Service

Sirius XM Radio

Sirius and XM Satellite Radio merge into a single entity, Sirius XM Radio.

iHeartRadio

Clear Channel creates iHeartRadio, an internet radio platform that aggregates content from hundreds of stations nationwide. This is the first foray of a large radio company into the increasingly competitive world of streaming radio. This service allows users to create custom radio stations, with links to hundreds of existing popular radio stations under the Clear Channel umbrella.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZhQSr2SugXA

What is iHeartRadio?

Copyright Royalties

Numerous associations concerned with protecting music-publishing and online interests come to an agreement about royalties for streaming and downloads to a limited number of devices. The compromise is the beginning of a long process involving the Copyright Royalty Board, the courts, and Congress to calculate how much audio-streaming sites should pay to publishers, and whether that should be higher than the amount radio broadcasters pay.

http://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/24/business/media/proposed-bill-could-change-royalty-rates-for-internet-radio.html?_r=0

Radio Stations Remain Popular

There are 15,455 licensed radio stations in the U.S.

Sirius XM Radio experiences growth

Eight years after the merger, Sirius XM radio claims a larger audience than any other radio broadcasting company in America, with 28.4 million subscribers.

Spotify, the internet streaming music service, hits 20 million paid subscribers and 75 million active users.

iHeartMedia Files for Bankruptcy

Flat advertising revenues and large debt force iHeartMedia to file for Chapter 11.

https://variety.com/2018/biz/news/iheartmedia-chapter-11-bankruptcy-1202715566/

Chapter 12: The Movie Industry

In the hands of a small number of distributors, the global reach of today’s movie industry raises questions about its influence and impacts on cultural diversity and local cultures.

• Explain the history of movies in the United States and how it affects the industry today.
• Analyze the production, distribution, and exhibition processes for theatrical motion pictures in the United States and recognize the major players in each realm.
• Describe how movies are financed and how they make money through various exhibition arrangements.
• Analyze the relationship between movie distributors and theaters.
• Explain the impact of new technologies and globalization on the movie industry.
• Consider the impact of American movie culture on world culture.

The Rise of Motion Pictures

Three themes emerge when we consider the development of motion pictures: (see the timeline)

• The movies as we know them did not arrive in a flash as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (351-353)
• The movie as a medium of communication developed as a result of social, legal, and organizational responses to technology during different periods. (353-354)
• The movie industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control its distribution to audiences. (354-355)

An Overview of the Modern Motion Picture Industry

• Virtually all theatrical films (feature films)   made in the United States are now made available in a variety of nontheatrical locations, although their release still typically begins with theatrical showings and places importance on the box office receipts. (356-358)
• Spending on moviegoing has gone up fairly consistently (as have ticket prices). (356)
• People aged 25 to 39 buy the highest percentage of movie tickets.  (356, see Table 12.1 for a breakdown of ticket purchasing by age)
• Blockbusters are films that make more than $200 million in their U.S. theatrical release. (356-357, see Table 12.2 for 2017’s top 25 films in terms of box office)
• The international market for movies has become crucial to making profits on movies and have grown faster than U.S. box office revenues. (358)
• Exhibition is characterized by multiplexes (eight to fifteen screens) and megaplexes (more than sixteen screens). (358)

Production in the Motion Picture Industry

• The major studios   remain very powerful in Hollywood, but they produce only one-third or less of the films on which their names are attached. Most films are produced by other companies—the majors act as distributors. (358)
• Film production firms come up with the material and the personnel to make the movie; film distribution firms find theaters and other outlets in which to show the films. (358)
• Independent producers also create titles that the majors pick up for distribution. (359)
• See Figure 12.2 for more about the process of making a movie. (360)
• Concepts coming from any number of places are turned into treatments   and scripts, sometimes offered by a little-known writer on spec to a producer, who may turn it into a film; they also are presented in a pitch.   Books are a major source of film concepts that may get the “green light.” (361)
• Foreign distribution has become a major source of revenue for Hollywood, explaining why action films are potentially so profitable. (361)
• Co-production agreements between countries help smooth the reception of movies in diverse populations. These are often problematic. (362)
• Signing a star to appear in a film sometimes involves the producer entering into back-end deals or offering percentages of the gross in negotiation with the star’s talent agent. (362)
• Producers must also meet the standards set by various unions and guilds. (362-363)
• A film is often chosen based on the available financing for its budget; so-called genre films   are typically low budget. Different types of films are distributed in different ways. (363)
• Independent production companies (those not owned by a studio) often have very close ties to a studio’s distribution division. Selling the distribution rights to a film can help bring in money. (363-364)
• A good way to develop an understanding of the complexities of film production is to simply watch the credits at the end of a film. (see Figure 12.3, p. 365)
• A film line producer   has the important function of making sure that the necessary equipment and personnel are where they need to be during the production phase. (366)
• One crucial element in the production process (as well as in the early stages of development when a producer may be looking for investors) is a contractual deal with a completion bond company ,  a specialized insurance firm that guarantees the film will actually be made, even if it runs over budget. (366)

Theatrical Distribution in the Movie Industry

Major distribution firms have two mandates: to get the films they distribute into theaters and to market these films effectively to target audiences. Major distributors distribute their own work and the work of others. (366-369)

• A film’s release date is an important part of the distribution strategy and uses two main strategies: wide release (including saturation releases) and limited release. (367-368)
• The marketing of films involves title testing and audience previewing of preliminary versions called rough cuts,   sometimes resulting in significant changes to a film before it goes into distribution. (368)
• Publicity might involve appearances on talk shows, press conferences, a big premiere, and other activities. Word of mouth also sells the films among groups of friends. (369)
• Most movies make their greatest profit in the first few weeks of distribution, and tracking studies   are used to understand how well (or poorly) the film is doing at any given time. (369)
• Marketing amounts to about half of the film’s negative cost (the total cost of making and editing the film). (369)

Theatrical Exhibition in the Motion Picture Industry

• The six largest theater chains control 56 percent of the screens on which films are shown in the United States. (370)
• Tension exists between distributors and exhibitors over the selection of films and the kind of deal that will make it possible for both parts of the industry to make a profit, the details of which are worked out in complex exhibition license   agreements. (370-372)
• The financial arrangement typically involves a percentage of the ticket sales for the distributor or a percentage above-the-nut   (the cost of doing business) for the exhibitor. (371)
• Digital and 3D screens, involving the distribution of films to theaters via satellite instead of sending reels of film, are now in nearly all U.S. movie theaters. (372)

Convergence and Nontheatrical Distribution and Exhibition in the Motion Picture Industry

• Money doesn’t just come from theatrical showings; “post-theatrical” sales, it also comes from television, streaming services, and DVD sales. (372)
• Sell-through outlets let customers buy videos and not just rent them. (373)
• Rental outlets allow people to rent the title on a pay-per-day basis. Although these used to be available in stores, Netflix now offers through-the-mail rentals, and Redbox offers rentals through vending machines. (373)
• The industry also has shifted to digital marketing and to online and mobile downloads. Social sites help spread word-of-mouth support for films. (373-373)
•  Video games are often inspired by popular movies and provide interest in renting or purchasing the original film. (373)

The Shift to Online and Mobile Downloads

• Evidence of digital convergence in the motion picture industry can be seen in the variety of platforms to which films are made available to consumers. (374)
• Downloads can be replayed and migrated from one device to another. On-demand movies allow viewing on a variety of devices, but only for a set amount of time. (374)
• See Table 12.2 for a sample breakdown of total film revenue by revenue type. (375)

The Problem of Piracy

• Film piracy, the unauthorized duplication of films for profit, is a major industry problem. Technologies allowing people to stream premium video channels without paying are also a concern. (376-377)

Media Ethics and the Motion Picture Industry

• The movie industry remains a central element within American and global culture and is dominated by a handful of major distributors. (377)
• All of the major studios and distributors are tied to the major media conglomerates that use their Hollywood assets in concert with other parts of their operations. (377)
• Critics of the Hollywood system sometimes argue that its industrial practices narrow the range of cultural diversity in films and that the enormous influence of U.S. distributors results in cultural colonialism in countries with smaller economies. (377-380)
• Movie Studio by Amazon for Screens Big and Small http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/20/business/amazon-to-start-theatrical-movie-operation-with-a-quick-streaming-tie-in.html?_r=0
• Europe Seeks Greater Control Over Digital Services http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/26/technology/eu-proposals-apple-netflix-facebook.html
• China’s Film Industry: A Blockbuster in the Making http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/lights-china-action-how-china-is-getting-into-the-global-entertainment-business/
• China Rising: How Four Giants Are Revolutionizing the Film Industry http://variety.com/2015/film/news/china-rising-quartet-of-middle-kingdom-conglomerates-revolutionizing-chinese-film-industry-1201421685/
• The Status of Women in the Media 2015 http://www.womensmediacenter.com/pages/2015-statistics

Introduction of Magic Lanterns

Magicians and other performers use the magic lantern, an early projection system, in shows. Those performances use slides to project mystical pictures onto smoke rising from canisters in darkened theaters. This activity was a predecessor to the projection of movies.

1790’s: An 18th-Century Motion Picture: Carmontelle’s Figures Walking in a Parkland

The Illusion of Drawings Moving

Inventors create devices that make still drawings appear to move. The approach involves preparing a series of drawings of objects in which each drawing is slightly different from the one before it. When the drawings are made to move quickly, it appears to the viewer that the objects are moving. This early motion-picture process foreshadowed the one used in the creation of filmed “movies,” especially filmed animation.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKJqeJ48CPs

A Brief History of Film: An Animated Documentary

Multiple Camera Motion

In California, photographer Eadweard Muybridge becomes the first successful photographer to capture motion, recording a galloping horse using multiple cameras. He sets up twenty-four cameras close to one another at a racetrack to capture the movement of a horse as it runs by. Muybridge later continues his stop-motion photography work at the University of Pennsylvania, where he explores the mechanics of movement. His work influences Thomas Edison.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IEqccPhsqgA

First Race Horse Film Ever 1878 Eadweard Muybridge

The Kinetoscope

Under the direction of his employer Thomas Edison, William Dickson invents a moving-picture device called Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope projected the movie in a box designed for the motion picture to be viewed individually. Edison and Dickson used the flexible photographic film developed by George Eastman and managed to create the illusion of a moving object within the device. This marks the beginning of the motion picture as we know it.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twQmAR7mUAU

Edison’s Kinetoscope-Museu de Cinema

Commercial Exhibition

Edison invites people to use Kinetoscopes for a fee in New York City. It is the first commercial exhibition of motion pictures in history.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmZ4VPmhAkw

Edison Kinetoscope Films: 1894-1896

Louis and Auguste Lumière

Louis and Auguste Lumière patent a combination movie camera and projector. The Lumières train people around the world to show their movies using their equipment and they focus on documenting “real life,” such ass treet scenes and parades. The projection of movies is initially scorned by Edison, but he soon changes his mind.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Q_SgMvTO-o

Cinematograph Lumiere-Museu de Cinema

The Edison Vitascope

Edison buys the rights to a projector invented by Thomas Armat and Charles Francis Jenkins and calls it the Edison Vitascope. Edison arranges for its public debut on April 23, 1896, in New York City. When the Vitascope premiers, the sensation of the evening is a film titled Rough Sea at Dover, made by Robert Paul. The view of waves crashing on Dover Beach is so realistic that people in the front rows actually shrink back in their seats, fearful of getting wet. Motion picture projection begins to take hold in the U.S.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1CFjDwtrQNw

Rough Sea at Dover

Voyage to the Moon

Georges Méliès produces Le Voyage Dans La Lune (A Trip to the Moon), a silent movie that becomes the earliest example of science fiction in film.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JDaOOw0MEE

Voyage to the Moon/Le Voyage Dans la Lune (1902)

The Great Train Robbery

Edwin S. Porter was a pioneer of early film editing. When moving pictures were first invented in the 1890s, a reel of film lasted approximately one minute. Early filmmaking practice was simply to point the camera at a scene, either outside or in a studio such as Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Laurie Dickson’s “the Black Maria,” and roll film until the film ran out. Whatever footage was shot was the moving picture, or “movie” for short. Georges Méliès took filmmaking a step forward by crafting individual scenes as vignettes (brief incidents or sketches), each of which lasted several minutes. These vignettes were then spliced together to form the larger film story that took roughly fifteen minutes to tell. Porter took filmmaking another giant leap forward with his work in film editing. He reduced film to its smallest possible element: the shot. By dividing a film into single units of shots instead of larger units of scenes or even whole reels of film, Porter maximized the medium’s stylistic and narrative potential.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=69grwvuVEec&feature=player_embedded http://www.filmsite.org/grea.html

The Great Train Robbery (1903)

Popularity Increase for Nickelodeons

Popularity of movie theaters (nickelodeons) grows in the United States, particularly among immigrants. The immigrants streaming into the United States from eastern and southern Europe in the early 1900s are especially attracted to nickelodeons—not only because of their low cost (a nickel) , but also because the doesn’t require much English knowledge. Stories are told through mime, with title cards inserted into the films at special moments to tell viewers what is going on.

http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/ae/movies/you-saw-it-here-first-pittsburghs-nickelodeon-introduced-the-moving-picture-theater-to-the-masses-in-1905-587730/

Man Looking into a Nickelodeon Film Machine

Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC)

The Edison company encourages formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC) (also known as the Movie Trust, the Edison Trust, or simply the Trust). It attempts to gain complete control of the motion-picture industry in the United States, primarily through control of patents.

The MPPC Dissolves

The Supreme Court rules that the MPPC violates antitrust laws and must cease its activities. This dissolution of the trust opens the road to competitors to the MPPC members and ultimately allows a new firms making films in Hollywood to control the industry.

Censorship in Entertainment

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that movies are “entertainment” and so are not protected by the First Amendment’s free-speech guarantees. The rule encourages states and cities to ban objectionable movies or to require the studios to edit them in certain ways. Fearing an overwhelming number of different editing requirements, leading industry executives move toward self-regulation aimed to head off such censorship activities.

http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,857201,00.html

Birth of a Nation

Film Birth of a Nation, directed by W.D. Griffith, is released. Originally titled The Clansmen, the film Birth of a Nation was a controversial, but commercially successful film. The film techniques and captivating nature of this 3 hour film led to it being the first motion picture shown at the White House. Griffiths released Fall of a Nation in 1916—the first sequel in movie history.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a9UPOkIpR0A

Birth of a Nation by W.D. Griffith Trailer

Vertical Integration

Several of the major Hollywood production and distribution firms—MGM, Warner Bros., Paramount, and Twentieth Century Fox—also own (or are owned by) large theater chains. This ownership structure is called vertical integration. It allows the movie companies to be sure they will be able to place the products they create in major theaters of major cities.

The Studio System

The major Hollywood production and distribution firms—Paramount, MGM, Twentieth Century Fox, Warner Bros., Columbia, and Universal—develop the “studio system,” which features long-term contracts for film stars, high production values and centralized creative control by studios. The studio system helps cement the power of the major producer-distributors. It is comprised of two elements: (1) a “star system” through which the place actors under contract and cultivate their careers; and (2) an A and B movie system, through which expensively produced movies (A pictures) garner prestige and less expensive ones bring profits. Through an activity called “block booking,” theaters receive A pictures only if they agree to accept the studio’s B pictures.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0JzgQQrB3qY

The Big Picture-Hollywood History 101-Part 1

The Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA)

The major studios form the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. By creating a movie “code” accepted by the major studios, the MPPDA manages to stave off government regulation and keep the studios in control of their products. It also sets a precedent for self-regulation in other media industries, including radio, television, and comic books.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J_RTnd3Smy8 http://mppda.flinders.edu.au/history/mppda-history/

Kodak 1922 Kodachrome Film Test

The Jazz Singer

Warner Bros. studios risks a lot of money experimenting with sound in movies and releases The Jazz Singer. The Jazz Singer is the first full-length movie to incorporate speaking and singing actors. The film’s success leads the other major studios to rush to adopt sound for their motion pictures.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PIaj7FNHnjQ

Clips from The Jazz Singer: “Mammy” Al Jolson (The Jazz Singer performance)

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs

Release of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs by Disney. This is the first feature-length animated film and marks the first time a film’s soundtrack and movie-related merchandise was available to further bolster profits from the film.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5kWr9e4JN5I

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (Original Theatrical Trailer #1) 1937

Citizen Kane

Release of Citizen Kane, directed by Orson Welles. Though Welles was only 25 when the film preleased, the techniques he employed changed how films were created for years to come. Welles was 23 years old and had never made or starred in a Hollywood film before he did Citizen Kane-he had gained his celebrity doing radio programs.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zyv19bg0scg

Citizen Kane The Theatrical Trailer

War Propaganda Films

Release of war propaganda films Why We Fight directed by Frank Capra in response to Leni Reifenstahl’s Triumph of the Will. This series of films by director Frank Capra (later famous for It’s a Wonderful Life and Mr Smith Goes to Washington) and commissioned by the U.S. War Department demonstrates early use of the film medium as a way to change public opinion. At the time of these films, the American public was not supportive of involvement in the war.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBtdTiHsQqI

Why We Fight #1-Prelude to War

Antitrust Lawsuit Settled

The U.S. Justice Department settles an antitrust suit against Paramount, Warner, MGM, and Fox. The settlement forces the firms to split off their production and distribution divisions from the theaters where the films are exhibited. The agreement opens the major studios to competition with some independent production and distribution firms who now have access to theaters they could not enter when the major studios owned them.

http://www.cobbles.com/simpp_archive/1film_antitrust.htm

Winchester ‘73

Release of Winchester ’73 by director Anthony Mann. The film was the first time an actor acted independent of the studio he was contracted to. Jimmy Stewart broke his contract with MGM and did a movie with Universal Studios for a smaller salary, but the condition that his salary be tied to the gross profit of the film. This is now standard practice in Hollywood.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vCu1RKphgos

Winchester ’73 Trailer

Sunset Boulevard

Release of Sunset Boulevard by director Billy Wilder. First film to blend fiction and non-fiction and incorporate the realities of film-making into an actual film. The film features scenes involving the actual Paramount Studios and legendary directors Cecil B. DeMille, and Erich von Stroheim. As such, the film offers commentary on the new Hollywood Studio system.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6j8JXbV7JWI

Sunset Blvd. (1950) Trailer

Fear of Television

The major movie studios refuse to sell old movies to television or to make programs for TV. Movie executives declare that the audience will soon tire of the small screen and go back to the movie theater. It doesn’t work. By the late 1950s the movie majors realize television is here for good.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNugTWHnSfw

The first movie shown on primetime TV was The Wizard of Oz (1939) on November 3, 1956

Surge in Television Viewing

By the late 1950s, about 90% of U.S. households own at least one television set. Among other reasons, the great surge in television viewing leads to a great drop in movie attendance. Realizing that creating a steady stream of A and B pictures is no longer viable, the major studios release far A pictures and mostly cease production of B pictures for the theaters. They dismantle the system that cultivated and controlled actors and actresses within the studio system. They also try to lure audiences back with wide screen technologies such as Cinemascope and Todd-AO.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MkXHyOD2BQM http://www.tvhistory.tv/Annual_TV_Sales_39-59.JPG

Early Television-“Magic in the Air” 1955

First Amendment Protection

The U.S. Supreme Court overturned its 1915 ruling and states that movies are entitled to First Amendment protection, marking the beginning of the decline of American film censorship. This decision leads producers and directors increasingly to ignore the motion picture association Hays Code and to compete with television industry, which has essentially adopted the code. Motion picture producers increasingly turn out pictures with scenes of violence, sex, addiction, and other subjects.

Widescreen Technology – The Robe

Release of The Robe, directed by Henry Koster. In direct response to the film industry’s growing concerns about losing customers to the increasingly popular television, Hollywood developed the anamorphic widescreen technology—making widescreen, colourful movies the new standard and distancing themselves from the black and white small TV screens.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FN1gya6cqUc

The Robe (1953) Clip

Disneyland Available for Television

The Walt Disney movie studio sells a TV series, Disneyland, to the ABC Television Network. Though Disneyland is not a movie (it distributes its films through one of the majors), this step is nevertheless a major break in Hollywood’s refusal to sell content to television.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rIrq3RFUQPU

The Disneyland Story-Part 1

Warner Bros. becomes the first major movie studio to create an original series, Cheyenne, for a television network, ABC. This is the beginning of the major Hollywood firms’ relation with television. Apart from selling the networks and stations old movies, the studios sell them series—essentially what used to be the B pictures.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0H_5PmY6Odg

Cheyenne (Episode 1) “Mountain Fortress”

Television ownership increases

87% of U.S. households own at least one television set, up considerably from just 9 percent of households in 1950.

The Video Cassette Recorder

The video cassette recorder (VCR) is introduced. It creates the movie rental industry. It also creates industry worries that criminals will copy the cassettes and sell them. This concern marks the beginning of large-scale concerns about piracy.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kHHSs_ilMDg

TV Commercial for the Sony Betamax VCR#1 1977

Westworld becomes the first feature film to use computer-generated imagery (CGI).

This was the first movie to be marketed to the mass public through a series of primetime TV ads ahead of the nationwide release of the film.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ONdwZEqUYt0

Jaws (1975) TV Spot

Release of Star Wars directed and written by George Lucas. Not only was the film wildly successful and profitable, but because Twentieth Century Fox could not foresee the success of this film, they allowed Lucas to keep 40% of merchandising rights in exchange for a smaller director’s salary. The profits on merchandise from the Star Wars franchise brought in millions of dollars—merchandising rights are now an important part of movie contracts.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vP_1T4ilm8M

Star Wars (1977) Original Trailer

Emergence of Cable Television

The spread of cable television in American life creates a new venue for movies after their theatrical release. Movie companies develop the concept of “windows” for post-theatrical distribution.

http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=unitedstatesc

Emergence of Multi-Media Conglomerates

Warner Bros., Twentieth Century Fox, Paramount, Universal, and Columbia become part of major international multi-media conglomerates. The conglomerates see their most important movies as major popular-culture events that start in theaters, cross many media, and result in spinoffs such as toys, clothes, books, and motion-picture sequels.

Pixar’s Toy Story becomes the first computer-animated feature film.

International Box Office Success

The amount of box office money the U.S.-based major studios received from outside the U.S. exceeds the amount they receive within the U.S. for the first time. Increasingly, Hollywood movie firms consider international prospects of a film as critical to its success.

The Blair Witch Project

Release of the Blair Witch Project, directed by Eduardo Sanchez and Daniel Myrick. This marks the first time a film used the web for movie promotion and marketing, which led to a gross profit of $248 million with only $1 million spent on marketing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D51QgOHrCj0 http://archive.fortune.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/1999/08/16/264276/index.htm

Blair Witch Project Trailer

Rising Interest in Documentaries

Documentary films rise in popularity as a commercial genre.

Paramount releases James Cameron’s Avatar in 3D, which becomes the highest-grossing film of all time, earning over 2.8 billion gross worldwide. The popularity of Avatar in 3D—especially outside the U.S.—encourages the major studios to release an increasing number of movies in 3D. Estimated production costs are between $280 and $310 million plus $150 for marketing.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRdxXPV9GNQ

Avatar Trailer-The Movie

100 Years of Studios

Major studies Paramount and Universal Studios mark their 100th anniversary in the industry.

Jurassic World

Jurassic World sets a record for the biggest global box office weekend in history, pulling in $524.1 million in a single weekend.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFinNxS5KN4

Jurassic World Trailer

AMC Acquires Carmike

AMC Entertainment, owned by Dalian Wanda Group, acquires Carmike Cinemas. They now control one out of five U.S. movie theaters.

Domestic Down, International Up

Domestic theater attendance fell to lowest point since 1992, but global box office revenue is up.

https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/3/16844662/movie-theater-attendance-2017-low-netflix-streaming

Streaming Services Win Oscars

For the first time, streaming services Netflix and Amazon won Oscars for their productions.

https://www.businessinsider.com/amazon-netflix-oscars-strategy-2017-2

Chapter 13: The Television Industry

Digital technologies have changed the ways in which we “watch television.” At the same time, advertisers are trying to find ways to address audiences through tighter and tighter targeting of their messages through different devices and platforms.

• Compare and contrast broadcast, cable, satellite, and over-the-top (OTT) television.
• Explain the role of advertisers in these four forms of television.
• Name and describe the different types of cable, satellite, and OTT services.
• Identify the ways in which broadcasters, cable companies, satellite, and OTT companies produce, distribute, and exhibit programming.
• Describe the issues facing the TV industry and society in a rapidly changing TV world.

The Rise of Television

Three themes emerge in the historical developments of television (see Figure 13.1 for a timeline of television history):

• Television as we know it did not arrive in a flash as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (384)
• Television broadcasting is the electronic scanning and transmission of image and sound, which, when received, is reconverted into visual images. (384-385)
• Television as a medium of communication developed as a result of social, legal, and organizational responses to technology during different periods. (385)
• Motion picture executives saw television as competition and refused to deal with the major television networks.
• Early television shows were broadcast live.  I Love Lucy  was the first show to be recorded on film and then syndicated. (388)
• The television industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control its channels to audiences. See the timeline for milestones in this struggle. (389)
• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulated which channels would be available in different parts of the country and the amount and kinds of programming received.

An Overview of the Television Industry

The contemporary industry can be divided into three increasingly converging parts (390):

• Television broadcasting,
• Subscription cable and satellite services,
• Online and mobile platforms.
• Television broadcasting consists of over-the-air signals. (391)
• Stations are either commercial (i.e., advertising supported) or noncommercial (i.e., supported in other ways). The FCC allocates the frequencies. (see Table 13.1 for the top and bottom five TV markets) (391)
• TV broadcasting is dominated by the Big Four commercial networks (ABC, CBS, Fox, NBC), which are all vertically integrated and operate owned-and-operated (O&O) stations, as well as provide program feeds to their many network-affiliated stations. (391-392)
• TV broadcasting is further divided into station groups and the so-called “independents,” which are not affiliated with a network. (392-393)
• Cable, telco, and satellite services are collectively called multichannel subscription video programming distributors (MVPDs). (see Table 13.2 for the top ten MVPD systems owners) (393-394)
• Cable television systems are typically owned by a multiple system owner (MSO) and provide a multitude of cable networks and premium subscription networks. (394)
• Telcos refer to the traditional telephone companies, such as Verizon and AT&T, that offer multichannel services. (394)
• Satellite television comes from a satellite orbiting the earth. Direct broadcast satellite technology allows subscribers to receive programming direct from the communication satellites. (394-395)
• Online and mobile platforms provide ways of streaming online content both at home and wherever a broadband signal allows. Though pirating does occur, the industry sees advantages to making this content available online. (395)
• It is difficult to determine the “return on investment” for streaming video distributors (e.g. Netflix), as they don’t report expenses for specific programs or audience numbers. (396)

Production in the Television Industry

• In cable television, the major kind of production is the lineup of channels, determined by the technological limitations of the system, the amount of money a network demands from exhibitors, and whether the exhibitor owns a piece of the network. (396)
• Each cable network engages in a form of production that creates a format, the entire flow of programming on a cable network. (396-397)
• Cable networks charge license fees that allow cable operators to carry their programming. (397-398)
• The cable TV industry offers different levels of programming called tiering. Various subscription tiers include basic cable, expanded (or enhanced) basic, digital cable, premium channels, pay-per-view (PPV), and video on demand (VOD). (see Table 13.3 for information about pricing) (398-399)
• Producing broadcast channel lineups now occurs in digital form. HDTV allows a higher-quality signal, which some stations use, or they divide the signal through channel multiplexing or multichannel broadcasting to generate more ad revenue. (399-400)
• Producing online/mobile lineups is more thematic or type-based. (400-409)
• Subscription video on demand (SVOD) provides access to movies and TV series for a fee. Some offer “slim bundles” offering smaller numbers of linear TV channels for a lower cost. (400)
• Over-the-top television refers to viewers’ use of Internet services to watch broadcast television while avoiding cable, satellite, or other subscription fees. Cutting the cord refers to those who cancel those subscriptions. Cord shavers reduce their level of services but still keep some. (400-401)
• Local or network programmers typically consider four factors when deciding on their intended audience targets: the competition, the available pool of viewers, the interests of sponsors, and the costs of relevant programming. (401)
• The Nielsen Media Research company dominates the television audience ratings business and uses people meters and viewer diaries to estimate the size of television audiences. (402)
• Ratings measurements taken during periods called sweeps—conducted in the months of February, May, July, and November—are crucial to the success of television programs because they help determine advertising rates. (403)
• Nonlinear viewing is becoming an important cross-platform rating measure.
• Programmers develop schedules for different day parts, including the most important day part: prime time. (405)
• The basic building block of a television schedule is the program series, usually a weekly program that attracts predictable audiences based on its regular availability. (405)
• Scheduling techniques include establishing strong lead-in and lead-out programs, encouraging audiences to sample a new series scheduled in between, a position called the hammock. (406)
• A position in the schedule is called a program time slot, and programmers use the strategy of counterprogramming when determining which shows go into which time slots. Counterprogramming is the practice of scheduling a program that does not directly compete for the same target audiences that competing programs seek. (406)
• A program idea typically emerges as a pitch made by producers to programmers. This is followed by a treatment, the establishment of the program’s format, and concept testing. This leads to the production of a pilot episode and the test viewing of the pilot in a preview theater. (406-409)

Distribution in the Television Industry

• Television networks distribute programming to their various affiliated stations throughout the country. (409)
• When programming appears online, networks don’t necessarily receive the license fees but instead a percentage of ad revenues. (409)
• Independent stations are non-network affiliates that rely on the production of their own programming or on syndication to fill their schedules. (409)
• Stripping refers to a five-day-a-week placement of a show. (410)
• Off-network syndication is an important part of television distribution and involves the reuse of network series by local stations. (410)
• Cable and satellite networks also make use of off-network syndication to fill their schedules. (410-411)
• See Table 13.4 for the top fifteen syndicated shows.
• So-called out-of-home or captive audience locations (waiting rooms, airport waiting areas, etc.) also constitute an increasingly important outlet for programs distributed by networks and cable services. (411)
• International distribution is a lucrative part of the television business. (411)
• Streaming television online faces some resistance from viewers as the industry tries to figure out how to get people to watch commercials. (412)

Exhibition in the Television Industry

• Broadcast television stations face even more competition than in the past. (413)
• Whereas broadcasters are limited to advertising and retransmission revenues, other providers have access to ad and subscription revenues. (413)
• Recently, more people are dropping their cable subscriptions and opting for streaming devices and services instead. As this number grows, satellite firms will lose (cable is cheaper), and the system of charging subscribers for a wide range of channels few visit will be undermined. (413-414)

Media Ethics: Converging Screens, Social Television, and the Issue of Personalization

• “Watching television” now means more than watching the actual device. (414)
• People might even use multiple screens to watch, using one to watch the program and others to research and discuss the show with others; this is called social television. (414-415)
• Advertisers are intrigued by social television and are looking for ways to customize advertising messages through these means by gathering data and sending back relevant commercial messages. They call this “addressable television.” (415)
• These messages might be customized to different audience demographics and other criteria, according to the data gathered. Whereas one person might see a luxury car ad, another might see a budget car ad. (415)
• Should audiences have a say in whether advertisers engage in these practices or not? (415-416)
• Netflix's View: Internet TV is replacing linear TV http://ir.netflix.com/long-term-view.cfm
• Content Wars: How Television Networks Are Fighting The Netflix Threat http://www.forbes.com/sites/denalitietjen/2015/06/09/content-wars-how-television-networks-are-fighting-the-netflix-threat/#645afde67a06
• Netflix v Amazon: who will win the streaming wars? http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/feb/27/amazon-versus-netflix-streaming
• ‘Cop Rock’: How a Legendary Failure Predicted TV’s Future http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/14/arts/television/how-cop-rock-called-the-tune-that-some-shows-still-dance-to.html?_r=0
• Asian-American Actors Are Fighting for Visibility. They Will Not Be Ignored. http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/29/movies/asian-american-actors-are-fighting-for-visibility-they-will-not-be-ignored.html
• 10 Companies Changing the TV Industry http://www.forbes.com/sites/shamahyder/2014/10/29/10-companies-changing-the-tv-industry/#5aa31efd5b63
• Historical Periods in Television Technology http://transition.fcc.gov/omd/history/tv/

Optimism in the UK for the Broadcast of Moving Images

The British humor magazine Punch publishes a picture of a couple watching a remote tennis match via a screen above their fireplace. Artists and intellectuals conceive of the possibility that moving images will be transmitted to the home.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Telephonoscope.jpg

Optimism in France for the Broadcast of Moving Images

A French artist drew a family of the future watching a war on a home screen. Artists and intellectuals conceive of the possibility that moving images will be transmitted to the home.

Scanning Disk System

Paul Nipkow invents a scanning disk system to try to capture images wirelessly. His technology would influence the work of John Logie Baird and others in their pursuit of the best ways to transmit television images.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bbbi2DP8XzU

Nipkow Spiral Disk

First Use of the Word, “Television”.

Scientific American magazine uses the word “television.” A vocabulary is developing to describe this future medium. Click on the links below for more information on the origins of “television”:

John Logie Baird

John Logie Baird successfully transmits the first television picture with a grayscale image. His continuing inventions would lead to a company to develop television and work with the BBC to transmit TV signals.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5ZSXPMlumc

John Logie Baird 1937

Broadcasting in the U.S. and U.K.

Stations in New York and Washington, D.C., begin a limited array of live broadcasts, while in London the BBC had five-day-a-week programming by 1930. Following Baird, this television technology uses a whirring mechanical disk to scan the broadcast images. The mechanical technique has many drawbacks.

Transmission of Television Signals

Vladimir Zworykin, employed by RCA and working with other inventors’ designs, develops the first successful electronic system for transmitting television signals. This electronic approach, using the cathode-ray tube, would eventually become the standard instead of the mechanical approach.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W40OktedXik

Zworykin on the Invention of Television

Nazi Germany

First regular TV service operates in Nazi Germany. This system sends propaganda messages to specially equipped theaters, rather than to sets in people’s homes. International interest in the mechanical TV technology is high.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMecO38MZCc

Television broadcasting in The Third Reich

The BBC begins regular electronic TV broadcasts in London. Broadcasts are on air four hours a day from 1936-1939, with around 12,000-15,000 receivers, many in pubs. This leads to international interest in the mechanical TV technology.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YOQCA0r1PZk

75 Years of BBC TV-History of the BBC

RCA’s Electronic TV Technology

RCA introduces a television that scans images electronically rather than mechanically. Variations on this electronic rather than mechanical TV technology are the one that the world ultimately adopts.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jApD3VIZu_4

Television 1939 RCA Early Introduction to TV

The Birth of Television

RCA begins regular broadcasting during the formal ceremonies at the World’s Fair in New York. It appears then that TV will soon be a reality. However, development of television broadcasting is largely halted due to U.S. involvement in World War II (1941-45). In introducing the new medium during formal ceremonies at the 1939 World’s Fair in New York, President Franklin D. Roosevelt becomes the first U.S. president to appear on TV.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U4hPX_PLC-o

Retro TV-Birth of TV at World’s Fair

Beginning of Commercial Broadcasting

Commercial broadcasting begins in earnest in the U.S., controlled by the firms that own major radio networks, NBC, CBS, and later ABC.

Freezing of TV Licenses

FCC declares a freeze on new TV licenses. This is done in order to review its standards for television. It decides to use the desirable very high frequency (VHF) band of frequencies for channels 2 through 13, and an ultra high frequency (UHF) band of frequencies for channels 14 through 83.

http://www.museum.tv/eotvsection.php?entrycode=freezeof1

Increase in Television Sets

The U.S. sees a rapid uptake of television sets: just 9% of homes had one in 1950, 87% by 1960.

TV Set, Circa 1959

The Golden Age of TV

The major LA-area (Hollywood) movie studios refuse to sell movies or create programs for television. In the early 1960s they predict Americans will tire of the black-and-white box and return to the theaters. The TV networks decide that TV programs will originate in New York and air live. As during the heyday of radio, advertisers sponsor entire shows and their advertising agencies produce them. Critics look back on this era as the ‘golden age’ of TV, marked by original dramas written by high-quality talent such as Paddy Chayefsky (Marty), Rod Serling (Requiem for a Heavyweight) and Gore Vidal (Visit to a Small Planet).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wZ7ND1o2OJA

Clip from Requiem for a Heavyweight

The Beginning of the Cable Industry

First community cable TV system is implemented in Lansford, PA. This activity marks the beginning of the cable television industry, initially called the Community Antenna Television. This first system allowed the town to pick up broadcast signals from far-away cities, and then transmit them to people’s homes via coaxial cable.

http://www.bcapa.com/about/history.php

I Love Lucy

I Love Lucy is the first scripted situation comedy to be shot on film in front of an audience. Starring Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball, I Love Lucy is an enormous hit with audiences on CBS television. Movie and network executives are quick to recognize the advantages of having a hit on film, as it can be aired over and over.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fq4Abm-_U4Y

“I Love Lucy” 50th Anniversary Favorite Episodes-Part1

TV Programs Go to Hollywood

Warner Bros. sells a package of Westerns to the ABC television network for prime-time broadcasting. The sale marks the start of the major Hollywood studios’ relationship with the TV networks. Over the next few years, the major studios will become deeply involved in television program production. In general, production of television shows moves from New York to Hollywood.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iZoHpG9dxDY

Cheyenne Nervous Barber

Nielsen Ratings

The A.C. Nielsen company’s rating system audits program viewing through an “audiometer” attached to the TV sets in a sample of American households. The ratings become the ultimate designators of program popularity. TV network, station, and advertising executives use the Nielsen ratings to determine whether programs should continue or be canceled.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4jyhQnl5Vo

Nielsen Ratings 101: Introduction

Changes to the Advertising Model

Especially in prime time (the evening), the major networks change their advertising model from full sponsorship (one advertiser supporting a program) to participating (inviting multiple advertisers to support a program). Rather than owning programs and fully sponsoring them, advertisers now can buy the right to advertise within shows that the network owns or leases. The new approach helps the networks because it gives them more control over their schedules so that they can plan to maximize advertisers’ ability to buy time on various programs, thereby reaching people at different times and on different networks.

Power of Broadcasting Companies

NBC, CBS, and ABC develop enormous power over broadcast television. They do it by implementing a strategy of vertical integration, controlling production, distribution, and exhibition for much of their programming. They control production by insisting that many of the production firms from which they purchase shows give them part ownership of the programs before they air. They control distribution through their ownership of powerful networks and through their insistence on controlling syndication: the licensing of programs they air to local stations (after their prime time run) and to TV systems around the world. And they control exhibition by owning stations in the largest U.S. population centers. This power of the networks over programming concerns critics who argue that the networks are creating a sameness for television with the goal of selling the largest possible number of people to advertisers for each program. Producers also complain to the FCC. They argue the government should prohibit the networks’ requirement to share ownership and syndication rights with networks if they want the show to air.

Federal Regulations

Listening to critics of network power, government agencies establish prime time access and financial syndication (fin-syn) rules, aimed at curtailing the power of the major TV networks. The FCC encourages independent producers by forcing the networks to stop supplying programming to local stations for a half hour of evening programming (typically 7:30-8) during prime time. In addition the Justice department prohibits ABC, NBC, and CBS from owning most of the entertainment programming they air, and it limits their involvement in producing shows for syndication. The hope is to encourage new producers to participate in the television system. In actuality, the 7:30-8 slot becomes a place for inexpensive quiz and reality shows that local stations purchase instead of producing their own public affair programs.

Expansion of Cable TV

The Federal government allows the expansion of cable television into metropolitan areas and for it to carry original programming. Until now, the government has protected broadcasters from competition from cable companies by not allowing them to do more than act as antenna services for the broadcasters in communities that cannot receive good broadcast signals. This expansion of cable TV’s mandate opens a new era in television.

http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reports/2006/R1138part1.pdf

Satellite Communication

The U.S. government allows businesses to use satellite communication. These activities mark the beginning of nationally distributed programming specifically to cable television subscribers. Time Incorporated begins to send its relatively new Home Box Office (HBO) pay-movie service to cable companies via satellite. At around the same time, Ted Turner arranges for his local Atlanta television station to be sent to cable systems around the country via satellite. He suspects he will increase his advertising revenues that way.

Increase in Broadcast Stations

New FCC rules result in an increase in the number of UHF broadcast stations. Airing mostly old TV shows, movies, and sports, these stations managed to garner high enough Nielsen ratings and find enough advertisers to sustain themselves. Eventually, many will become part of the Fox Television Network.

Nickelodeon

Warner Cable Communications launches Nickelodeon children’s cable network. This channel provides a reason for families with young children to subscribe to cable TV.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-tBFmMkQxs8

Nickelodeon Promos 1979

Ted Turner founds CNN, a 24-hour cable news network. The first such network, CNN revolutionizes news coverage with its emphasis on showing breaking news live.

http://emmytvlegends.org/interviews/people/ted-turner

A joint venture between Warner Communications and American Express launches Music Television (MTV). Originally playing entirely music videos, the network had a profound influence on the music industry.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XBf0yJVMSzI http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/perfect/mtv.html

MTV Original Broadcast 8/1/1981

The Fox Network

Rupert Murdoch launches the Fox Network. The number of independent TV broadcasters around the United States is great enough to convince media mogul Rupert Murdoch that he could accomplish a feat no one had been able to do since the 1950s: start a fourth network that could compete seriously with the Big Three. On the strength of a popular Saturday morning children’s line-up and quirky, youth-oriented evening programs, it managed to draw advertisers and become a permanent TV fixture.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lgw0D2wYtZA

Rupert Murdoch-The Life and Times of a Media Mogul

Satellite TV

DirecTV begins direct-to-home satellite services, followed by the Dish network in 1996. Originally a substitute for cable in rural areas where it wasn’t available, satellite TV carried up to 150 channels to a plate-sized receiver on a subscriber’s house. It further expands Americans’ choices and numbers of television signals.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CaCTLWTqWhQ

Direct TV Commercial 1998

Disney buys ABC. It is part of a conglomeration taking place in the media system. Around the same time, Viacom purchases CBS, only to separate from it some years later.

http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/01/business/media-business-merger-walt-disney-acquire-abc-19-billion-deal-build-giant-for.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm

The first Digital Video Recorders (DVRs), which allow viewers to record shows for later viewing, pause live TV, and skip commercials, are introduced.

Netflix begins offering its subscription-based DVD-by-mail service.

Quarterlife

Quarterlife, a series produced by Marshall Herskovitz and Edward Zwick about twenty-something artists, appears in eight minute segments on MySpace and its own site. Quarterlife is indicative of early attempts to create television programming for the internet. The Quarterlife website claims the program was the first Internet series to have been created with a website that facilitated social-network discussions of the show. Briefly in 2008, NBC television aired web episodes stitched together as hourly programs. Some of those episodes also showed up on NBC and Hulu websites.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9ZimvNBeIo

“Quarterlife” Part I

NBC, ABC, and Fox launch Hulu, a platform for distributed their shows online. Supported by ads, the networks consider it a way to gain a foothold in the online distribution of their programs.

http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2011517934_bthulufuture05.html?syndication=rss

HBO launches its GO service to allow subscribers to access its programs when connected to the internet. This spurs others in the television industry to launch services for cable or satellite subscribers that allow them to receive programs “everywhere.”

http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/02/17/hbo-go-the-best-online-video-service-i-cannot-use/

Comcast buys a controlling interest of NBC-Universal from General Electric. The purchase makes Comcast the largest media firm, and it gives a large cable firm leverage over one of the key distributors of the programs it carries.

http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-01-18/comcast-nbc-universal-deal-said-to-be-near-u-s-fcc-approval.html

Video On-Demand

Cable video on demand (VOD) grows in popularity, helping cable companies keep subscribers and offering hundreds of thousands of new viewers for network shows.

Cord Cutting

The success of online video streaming services like Netflix, Amazon Prime, and HBO GO leads to a 20 percent drop in traditional TV viewership by young adults since 2011.

Rise of Non-Linear TV Viewing

76 percent of American households DVR, subscribe to Netflix, or use VOD service through a cable provider

FCC Eliminates Media Cross-Ownership Ban

FCC reverses a 1975 rule banning a single media company from owning a newspaper and a broadcast stations (radio or television) in the same local market.

https://www.thestreet.com/story/14393898/1/fcc-lifts-ban-on-tv-station-joint-sales-agreements.html

Non-Broadcast Networks Sweep Emmys

Netflix (with 7), HBO (with 6) and Amazon (with 5) the major winners of Emmy awards with traditional broadcast (ABC, NBC, CBS) programming winning only 2 awards.

Chapter 14: The Video Game Industry

Video games are immensely popular among a variety of audiences, including older adults and women, and like other media discussed in this book, they are appearing across devices and platforms.

• Sketch the development of video games.
• Describe video game genres.
• Review the production, distribution, and exhibition of video games.
• Chart major social controversies surrounding video games.

The Rise of the Video Game Industry

Three themes emerge within the historical development of the video game industry. Though a chapter entirely dedicated video games might seem unusual, as an industry they fit within the patterns seen in previous chapters, especially convergence. (419, see Figure 14.1 for a timeline of video game developments)

• The video game did not arrive in a flash as a result of one inventor’s grand change. (421)
• The pinball machine was the first step and could be found at entertainment arcades. (421-422)
• The video game as a medium of communication developed as a result of social and legal responses to technology during different periods. (422)
• The Internet brought bulletin boards, multiuser dungeons (MUDs), and massively multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs). (422)
• The video game industry developed and changed as a result of struggles to control its channels to audiences. (423)
• The industry has seen concentration and growth in software companies and in console manufacturers. (423)
• Controversy around game content, especially violence and stereotyping, has led to self-regulation. (423)

The Contemporary Shape of the Video Game Industry

• According to the Entertainment Software Association, 64 percent of Americans have played video games. About 45 percent of players are female and 55 percent male, breaking the stereotype of teenage boys being the primary audience for the games. (424)
• Purchasers of games feel they get more value for their money compared to DVDs, movies, music, and streaming services. (424)
• Video game hardware refers to the devices on which video games are played; these include gaming consoles, desktop or laptop computers, interactive television connections, handheld systems, and mobile devices. (425)
• Some websites will draw casual gamers, whereas others might play social games with their friends. (426)
• MMORPG publishers host virtual worlds and store information about the players (who use avatars). (426)
• Handheld game devices, once a rising market, have fallen in sales as mobile devices are being used for game play. (426)
• Interactive television is a growing area of game delivery and play. Telcos charge customers beyond basic fees to access playing areas. (426)
• Video game publishers coordinate the production of video games. Like publishers in other industries, they take care to produce titles they think will draw audiences and sales. (428)
• Console manufacturers have publishing divisions that create games exclusive for their consoles. (428-429)
• Third-party publishers, like Electronic Arts, create games that work on multiple platforms. (429)
• The video game industry also categorizes games very specifically. Video games are quite expensive to make, and it has become more and more “hit driven” since the 2000s. (429-431)
• Software genres for video games include action games, adventure games, casual games, simulation games, strategy games, sports games, and edutainment. (431-433)
• Because of games’ popularity among women and older adults, advertisers have taken an interest in video games. They primarily use two techniques: creating custom games and embedding ads in games. (433-435)
• Rewarded ads have players watch a short video ad in return for enhanced game play.
• Dynamic in-game advertising changes ads on the fly based on player age and geographic location. (435)

Distribution and Exhibition of Video Games

• Games reach audiences through cable streaming, Internet downloading, and discs or cartridges. The physical media can be purchased through brick-and-mortar retail stores or online from outlets such as Amazon.com. (435)

Video Games and Convergence

• Convergence enables game play across devices, enables promotion of games across media, and enables synergy through licensing fees as games become franchises, such as  Tomb Raider . (436-437)

Media Ethics: Confronting Key Issues

• Similar to other industries explored in this book, ethics questions come into play with video games. These issues include (1) concerns over content, such as violence and the hypersexualization of women; (2) privacy, such as how much data video games gather, how they use them, and how they secure them; and (3) self-regulation, which intersects with both content rating and privacy principles. (437-444, see Table 14.1 for ESRB’s ratings of top video games)
• Video games need more women – and asking for that won't end the world https://www.theguardian.com/technology/commentisfree/2014/feb/19/video-games-need-more-women-female-characters
• Video games can never be art http://www.rogerebert.com/rogers-journal/video-games-can-never-be-art
• The Dark Future of Freemium Games, and How We Can Avoid It http://www.ign.com/articles/2012/07/20/the-dark-future-of-freemium-games-and-how-we-can-avoid-it
• These People Are Making the Creator of 'Candy Crush' Rich http://mashable.com/2014/02/20/candy-crush-saga-addicts/#aLzIJmOSQsqH
• Angry Birds Movie’ Is Part of App Developer’s Big Picture http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/16/business/media/angry-birds-movie-is-part-of-app-developers-big-picture.html?_r=0
• How Much Do You Know About Video Games? https://www.esrb.org/about/video-game-industry-statistics.aspx

Coin-Operated Pinball Machines

David Gottlieb introduces the first coin operated pinball machines. Using a spring ball launcher, the player hopes to rack up the most points by hitting various elements on the board. Pinball machines become part of the attractions of entertainment arcades—commercial locations featuring coin-operated machines such as fortune tellers and shooter games.

Couple Enjoying a Pinball Game

Humpty Dumpty Pinbal Game

Gottlieb introduces Humpty Dumpty pinball game. It is the first pinball game to add player-controlled flippers to keep the ball in play longer and added a skill factor to the game.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gtFjyrN4Q40

1947 Gottlieb Humpty Dumpty Pinball Machine in Action

Cathode Ray Tube Amusement Device

Goldsmith and Mann develop a ‘cathode ray tube amusement device’ on which knobs and buttons are used to simulate firing a missile onscreen. They receive the first patent for a device that pointed to the possibility of video gaming.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k_WUb-1C010

Cathode Ray Tube Amusement Device (1947)

The First Video Game

Scientists at the Brookhaven National Laboratory set up a video tennis game, an early percursor to Pongand the first video game designed to be played on a display screen. This game used an oscilloscope and two simple controllers to simulate hitting a ball over a net, and was displayed for play during the institution’s annual visitors’ day.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6PG2mdU_i8k

The Original Video Game

MIT students create Spacewar! The first influential video game, in which two players controlled spacecraft which fired missiles at each other. The game was distributed widely amongst early computer enthusiasts.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rmvb4Hktv7U

Spacewar! (MIT 1962)

Galaxy Game

Coin-operated Galaxy Game, the first commercial video game, is installed in Stanford University's student union.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVprIIDDLYY

Galaxy Game (1971 Computer Recreation Inc.) on MAME

Atari and Pong

Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney found Atari and create Pong. It is the first successful U.S. company to create video arcade games.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e4VRgY3tkh0

Pong (1972 Atari)

The Magnavox company releases Odyssey. Using interchangeable cartridges, it is the first home video game console. It sells 100,000 consoles the first year.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2EIsnr_cv4

Magnavox Odyssey TV Ad February 1973

Mattel’s Auto Race

Mattel introduces Auto Race, the first handheld electronic game device. Other companies follow with single-game handheld devices. It is not until 1979 that Milton Bradley takes the next technological step, with interchangeable games.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=isejBX1Tyjk

Mattel Electronics Auto Race

Atari releases its 2600 console. Atari sells over 30 million units of the console. By the early 1980s it is releasing popular titles such as Pong, Space Invaders and Pac-Man.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJNbhekKShI

Atari 2600 Commercial 1977

The Golden Age of Video Games

Arcade games like Pac-Man, Donkey Kong and Space Invaders peak in popularity in what is often called the “golden age of video arcade games.”

Video Games Increase in Popularity

Video arcade games overtake pinball machines in popularity. By 1983, there are over 1.5 million arcade machines in North America, with revenue of around $7 billion annually.

Teenagers Playing Atari’s Asteroids

Microvision

Milton Bradley develops the Microvision handheld game device. It is considered the first console with interchangeable cartridges. Though not successful commercially, it pointed the way to Nintendo’s Game Boy.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pt5JuHMBvEw

MB Games Microvision-Ashens

Emergence of Computer Games

A major economic downturn befalls the console industry. The downturn in consoles opens the way for computer-based games. Companies sell disks that can be used on specific computers—for example the Commodore 64, the Apple II, and the IBM PC. Strategy video games and simulation video games catch on as particularly appropriate for computer play, including Dune (strategy) and SimCity (simulation).

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvHcYe2sQ-I

The Video Game Crash of 1983—Continue?

Multi-User Dungeons (MUDs)

The GamBit company in Minnesota introduces Scepter of Goth, the first commercial online role-playing game in the United States. This type of game became known as as multi-user dungeons (MUDs). They are the predecessors of today’s multi-player online role-playing games (MMORPGs), such as World of Warcraft.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PgYuJczGv8o

MMO Part 1-Crawling Through the Mud

Created in Russia during what was then the U.S.S.R. by Alexey Pajitnov, Tetris is credited with launching the casual gaming industry.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhwNTo_Yr3k

BBC - Tetris - From Russia with Love

Super Mario Brothers

Super Mario Brothers, released by Nintendo is often credited with saving the gaming industry after the 1983 crash due to its immense popularity. It also popularized the use of “side scrolling” video games so that the scenery and levels of the game could shift.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ABwNrxE6Y90

Super Mario Bros History (visual tour)

Nintendo introduces the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) video game console in the United States. With popular games such as Super Mario Bros and The Legend of Zelda, it helps to revive the console industry.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePPkNSOyMes

Nintendo Part 1-Leave Luck to Heaven

The Legend of Zelda

Release of Legend of Zelda, from Nintendo. This game went on to become one of Nintendo’s most successful franchises. It introduced new features that are now standard in video games—such as the ability to save where you are and a targeting system for 3D fighting.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdZ4rw5yep0

Video Game History Month-Legend of Zelda

Nintendo releases the Game Boy handheld game console. It is not the first such device, but it does popularize the form.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GErk7fMiatQ

Nintendo Game Boy (1989) First Game Boy TV Commercial

The Playstation

Sony releases the Playstation. As the first console to used CDs rather than cartridges, it allows for greater complexity than previously, including 3D graphics.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b6-IRBlttoA

Playstation 15th Anniversary Documentary

Meridian 59 and Quake

The 3DO company releases Meridian 59, the first massively multiplayer online roleplaying game (MMORPG). The same year, the first-person shooter game Quake pioneered multiplayer interaction over the internet.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-N5VtGVmvxU

Meridian 59 Gameplay

Lara Croft: Tomb Raider

Release of Lara Croft: Tomb Raider. This game went on to inspire the most successful film adaptation of a video game in the history of the genre. Although Lara Croft is one of the most widely recognized heroines in gaming, the changes in her body’s appearance over the years has been the source of much controversy.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkD8x9aItCs http://www.wired.co.uk/news/archive/2013-03/04/the-evolution-of-lara-croft#the-evolution-of-lara-croft/viewgallery/264527

Tomb Raider Trailer

Mobile Gaming

Nokia installs the game Snake on its mobile phones. This marks the beginning of mobile gaming.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=13Mq95f7eoU

Nokia Snake Gameplay (iPhone)

Release of Halo. Although it was not the first (or last) first-person shooter or game linked to an online console, it is the gold standard of this genre in the industry. The Halo franchise has also been successful with their marketing campaigns, ads, and branding outside of video games which have included partnerships with big name brands like Frito Lay, Super Bowl commercials, graphic novels, toys, an anime program, and more.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z4AOQkb4jNU

Halo Retrospective-The Complete History of Halo

Handheld Gaming Consoles

Release of the Nintendo DS and PlayStation Portable. These handheld consoles, especially the DS, prove popular with younger and middle-aged consumers, outside the traditional target market for video games.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XOCpoow1Tz4

World of Warcraft

Release of World of Warcraft by Blizzard. World of Warcraft was one of the early MMOs—instead of buying the game for a console, the game was entirely online, thus, players had to pay a subscription fee to join the game. The extreme popularity of the game changed the world of MMOs forever--the game sold 2.8 million subscriptions on its first day and 4 million subscriptions by the end of the first month it was out. By 2012, there were close to 12 million subscribers.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pI2oieLb60k http://www.forbes.com/sites/erikkain/2013/05/09/as-world-of-warcraft-bleeds-subscribers-free-to-play-is-already-winning-the-future/

World of Warcraft Part 1: Crafting the World of War

Microsoft releases the first XBox. It was Microsoft's initial foray into the gaming console market.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HDLEENzcTDI

History of XBox Console

Second Life

Linden Lab launches Second Life, a MMORPG featuring a virtual world that avatars can explore—complete with a currency with a real-world exchange rate.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XQkYBbM9YyM

Review of Second Life

Guitar Hero

Release of Guitar Hero. Packaged with a Gibson-guitar-like controller, this game launched a music-themed game cultural fad in North America. Guitar Hero has gone on to be used in educational settings and medical rehabilitation facilities.. In 2011, Activision got rid of the Guitar Hero division of the company after poor sales due greatly to the presence of more and more music-themed games.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVyWcUHPWUU http://www.wired.com/gamelife/2011/02/guitar-hero-canceled/

Guitar Hero Gameplay

Nintendo Wii

Nintendo releases the Wii. Featuring a motion-sensitive controller and appealing to a wider demographic, it sells over 90 million units.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yLlS0OPzzmo

Nintendo Part 6-Wiidemption

Zynga launches its best-known game, FarmVille, on Facebook, reaching 10 million users within six weeks.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpPEXNtz_TY

Farmville-Plant and Grow with Friends

Angry Birds

Finnish computer game developer Rovio Entertainment introduces Angry Birds. Rovio first released for Apple devices, but then creates versions for the Android, Symbian, and Windows Phone mobile operating systems, as well as for video game consoles and Windows desktops and laptops. According to Rovio, by 2012 1.7 billion gamers have downloaded the game.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BqfjGDsHUs http://www.forbes.com/sites/johngaudiosi/2013/03/11/rovio-execs-explain-what-angry-birds-toons-channel-opens-up-to-its-1-7-billion-gamers/

Microsoft introduces the Kinect motion sensing input device for the Xbox 360, allowing users to interact with games without a controller. After selling a total of 8 million units in its first 60 days, the Kinect holds the Guinness World Record of being the fastest selling consumer electronics device.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzfpXAbQ61U

Microsoft Kinect Motion

Draw Something

OMGPOP, a struggling mobile-app firm, launches Draw Something, a mobile interactive word game. Within 50 days of its release, Draw Something was downloaded 50 million times.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GsKsa2Omf6I http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/26/technology/draw-something-changes-the-game-quickly-for-omgpop.html?_r=2&

Draw Something 2 Trailer

Zynga acquires OMGPOP

Zynga purchases OMGPOP for $180 million.

Gaming Subscription Services

NVIDIA releases GeForce Now, a subscription-based cloud gaming service that allows users to stream games to their devices from the digital cloud.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j1iKGtRwWkw

GEForce Now Advertisement

Amazon Buys Twitch

Amazon purchases live streaming video game playing site Twitch for $970 million.

https://www.businessinsider.com/statistics-about-twitch-2014-8

Annual Video Game Spending

Global revenue on video games is $101 billion which is more than video and music sales combined.

https://www.vanillaplus.com/2018/07/05/40093-video-games-market-worth-music-movies-combined-arent-csps-launching-games-services/

Career Resources

These large-scale career websites offer a broad variety of employment-related information and services. All of these sites feature many career resources, including job postings, job application advice, career descriptions, job fair listings, career blogs, message boards, and recruiter directories. These sites have much to offer the first-time job seeker in any arena, including all media industries.

• www.vault.com
• www.careerbuilder.com
• www.monster.com
• www.myperfectresume.com
• www.simplyhired.com
• www.indeed.com

General Media Industry Sites

• www.journalismjobs.com
• www.indeed.com/q-Journalist-jobs.html
• www.mediajobs.com
• www.mediajobs.center (Europe)

MEDIA INDUSTRY JOB SITES

Media bistro, publishers marketplace, national association of broadcasters education foundation, asian american journalists association, national association of black journalists, national association of hispanic journalists, society of professional journalists: career center, radio television digital news association, ire: investigative reporters & editors, online news association, national academy of television arts & sciences, public broadcasting service, unc center for media law and policy job board, internships, brkman center for internet and society, federal communications commission, academy of television arts and sciences, national public radio, new york women in communications, media matters, kaiser media internships and fellowships, altice usa internships.

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2.2 Media Effects Theories

Learning objectives.

• Identify the basic theories of media effects.
• Explain the uses of various media effects theories.

Early media studies focused on the use of mass media in propaganda and persuasion. However, journalists and researchers soon looked to behavioral sciences to help figure out the effect of mass media and communications on society. Scholars have developed many different approaches and theories to figure this out. You can refer to these theories as you research and consider the media’s effect on culture.

Widespread fear that mass-media messages could outweigh other stabilizing cultural influences, such as family and community, led to what is known as the direct effects model of media studies. This model assumed that audiences passively accepted media messages and would exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages. For example, following the radio broadcast of War of the Worlds in 1938 (which was a fictional news report of an alien invasion), some people panicked and believed the story to be true.

Challenges to the Direct Effects Theory

The results of the People’s Choice Study challenged this model. Conducted in 1940, the study attempted to gauge the effects of political campaigns on voter choice. Researchers found that voters who consumed the most media had generally already decided for which candidate to vote, while undecided voters generally turned to family and community members to help them decide. The study thus discredited the direct effects model and influenced a host of other media theories (Hanson, 2009). These theories do not necessarily give an all-encompassing picture of media effects but rather work to illuminate a particular aspect of media influence.

Marshall McLuhan’s Influence on Media Studies

During the early 1960s, English professor Marshall McLuhan wrote two books that had an enormous effect on the history of media studies. Published in 1962 and 1964, respectively, the Gutenberg Galaxy and Understanding Media both traced the history of media technology and illustrated the ways these innovations had changed both individual behavior and the wider culture. Understanding Media introduced a phrase that McLuhan has become known for: “The medium is the message.” This notion represented a novel take on attitudes toward media—that the media themselves are instrumental in shaping human and cultural experience.

His bold statements about media gained McLuhan a great deal of attention as both his supporters and critics responded to his utopian views about the ways media could transform 20th-century life. McLuhan spoke of a media-inspired “global village” at a time when Cold War paranoia was at its peak and the Vietnam War was a hotly debated subject. Although 1960s-era utopians received these statements positively, social realists found them cause for scorn. Despite—or perhaps because of—these controversies, McLuhan became a pop culture icon, mentioned frequently in the television sketch-comedy program Laugh-In and appearing as himself in Woody Allen’s film Annie Hall .

The Internet and its accompanying cultural revolution have made McLuhan’s bold utopian visions seem like prophecies. Indeed, his work has received a great deal of attention in recent years. Analysis of McLuhan’s work has, interestingly, not changed very much since his works were published. His supporters point to the hopes and achievements of digital technology and the utopian state that such innovations promise. The current critique of McLuhan, however, is a bit more revealing of the state of modern media studies. Media scholars are much more numerous now than they were during the 1960s, and many of these scholars criticize McLuhan’s lack of methodology and theoretical framework.

Despite his lack of scholarly diligence, McLuhan had a great deal of influence on media studies. Professors at Fordham University have formed an association of McLuhan-influenced scholars. McLuhan’s other great achievement is the popularization of the concept of media studies. His work brought the idea of media effects into the public arena and created a new way for the public to consider the influence of media on culture (Stille, 2000).

Agenda-Setting Theory

In contrast to the extreme views of the direct effects model, the agenda-setting theory of media stated that mass media determine the issues that concern the public rather than the public’s views. Under this theory, the issues that receive the most attention from media become the issues that the public discusses, debates, and demands action on. This means that the media is determining what issues and stories the public thinks about. Therefore, when the media fails to address a particular issue, it becomes marginalized in the minds of the public (Hanson).

When critics claim that a particular media outlet has an agenda, they are drawing on this theory. Agendas can range from a perceived liberal bias in the news media to the propagation of cutthroat capitalist ethics in films. For example, the agenda-setting theory explains such phenomena as the rise of public opinion against smoking. Before the mass media began taking an antismoking stance, smoking was considered a personal health issue. By promoting antismoking sentiments through advertisements, public relations campaigns, and a variety of media outlets, the mass media moved smoking into the public arena, making it a public health issue rather than a personal health issue (Dearing & Rogers, 1996). More recently, coverage of natural disasters has been prominent in the news. However, as news coverage wanes, so does the general public’s interest.

Through a variety of antismoking campaigns, the health risks of smoking became a public agenda.

Quinn Dombrowski – Weapons of mass destruction – CC BY-SA 2.0.

Media scholars who specialize in agenda-setting research study the salience, or relative importance, of an issue and then attempt to understand what causes it to be important. The relative salience of an issue determines its place within the public agenda, which in turn influences public policy creation. Agenda-setting research traces public policy from its roots as an agenda through its promotion in the mass media and finally to its final form as a law or policy (Dearing & Rogers, 1996).

Uses and Gratifications Theory

Practitioners of the uses and gratifications theory study the ways the public consumes media. This theory states that consumers use the media to satisfy specific needs or desires. For example, you may enjoy watching a show like Dancing With the Stars while simultaneously tweeting about it on Twitter with your friends. Many people use the Internet to seek out entertainment, to find information, to communicate with like-minded individuals, or to pursue self-expression. Each of these uses gratifies a particular need, and the needs determine the way in which media is used. By examining factors of different groups’ media choices, researchers can determine the motivations behind media use (Papacharissi, 2009).

A typical uses and gratifications study explores the motives for media consumption and the consequences associated with use of that media. In the case of Dancing With the Stars and Twitter, you are using the Internet as a way to be entertained and to connect with your friends. Researchers have identified a number of common motives for media consumption. These include relaxation, social interaction, entertainment, arousal, escape, and a host of interpersonal and social needs. By examining the motives behind the consumption of a particular form of media, researchers can better understand both the reasons for that medium’s popularity and the roles that the medium fills in society. A study of the motives behind a given user’s interaction with Facebook, for example, could explain the role Facebook takes in society and the reasons for its appeal.

Uses and gratifications theories of media are often applied to contemporary media issues. The analysis of the relationship between media and violence that you read about in preceding sections exemplifies this. Researchers employed the uses and gratifications theory in this case to reveal a nuanced set of circumstances surrounding violent media consumption, as individuals with aggressive tendencies were drawn to violent media (Papacharissi, 2009).

Symbolic Interactionism

Another commonly used media theory, symbolic interactionism , states that the self is derived from and develops through human interaction. This means the way you act toward someone or something is based on the meaning you have for a person or thing. To effectively communicate, people use symbols with shared cultural meanings. Symbols can be constructed from just about anything, including material goods, education, or even the way people talk. Consequentially, these symbols are instrumental in the development of the self.

This theory helps media researchers better understand the field because of the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared symbols. Because of the media’s power, it can construct symbols on its own. By using symbolic interactionist theory, researchers can look at the ways media affects a society’s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence of those symbols on the individual (Jansson-Boyd, 2010).

One of the ways the media creates and uses cultural symbols to affect an individual’s sense of self is advertising. Advertisers work to give certain products a shared cultural meaning to make them desirable. For example, when you see someone driving a BMW, what do you think about that person? You may assume the person is successful or powerful because of the car he or she is driving. Ownership of luxury automobiles signifies membership in a certain socioeconomic class. Equally, technology company Apple has used advertising and public relations to attempt to become a symbol of innovation and nonconformity. Use of an Apple product, therefore, may have a symbolic meaning and may send a particular message about the product’s owner.

Media also propagate other noncommercial symbols. National and state flags, religious images, and celebrities gain shared symbolic meanings through their representation in the media.

Spiral of Silence

The spiral of silence theory, which states that those who hold a minority opinion silence themselves to prevent social isolation, explains the role of mass media in the formation and maintenance of dominant opinions. As minority opinions are silenced, the illusion of consensus grows, and so does social pressure to adopt the dominant position. This creates a self-propagating loop in which minority voices are reduced to a minimum and perceived popular opinion sides wholly with the majority opinion. For example, prior to and during World War II, many Germans opposed Adolf Hitler and his policies; however, they kept their opposition silent out of fear of isolation and stigma.

Because the media is one of the most important gauges of public opinion, this theory is often used to explain the interaction between media and public opinion. According to the spiral of silence theory, if the media propagates a particular opinion, then that opinion will effectively silence opposing opinions through an illusion of consensus. This theory relates especially to public polling and its use in the media (Papacharissi).

Media Logic

The media logic theory states that common media formats and styles serve as a means of perceiving the world. Today, the deep rooting of media in the cultural consciousness means that media consumers need engage for only a few moments with a particular television program to understand that it is a news show, a comedy, or a reality show. The pervasiveness of these formats means that our culture uses the style and content of these shows as ways to interpret reality. For example, think about a TV news program that frequently shows heated debates between opposing sides on public policy issues. This style of debate has become a template for handling disagreement to those who consistently watch this type of program.

Media logic affects institutions as well as individuals. The modern televangelist has evolved from the adoption of television-style promotion by religious figures, while the utilization of television in political campaigns has led candidates to consider their physical image as an important part of a campaign (Altheide & Snow, 1991).

Cultivation Analysis

The cultivation analysis theory states that heavy exposure to media causes individuals to develop an illusory perception of reality based on the most repetitive and consistent messages of a particular medium. This theory most commonly applies to analyses of television because of that medium’s uniquely pervasive, repetitive nature. Under this theory, someone who watches a great deal of television may form a picture of reality that does not correspond to actual life. Televised violent acts, whether those reported on news programs or portrayed on television dramas, for example, greatly outnumber violent acts that most people encounter in their daily lives. Thus, an individual who watches a great deal of television may come to view the world as more violent and dangerous than it actually is.

Cultivation analysis projects involve a number of different areas for research, such as the differences in perception between heavy and light users of media. To apply this theory, the media content that an individual normally watches must be analyzed for various types of messages. Then, researchers must consider the given media consumer’s cultural background of individuals to correctly determine other factors that are involved in his or her perception of reality. For example, the socially stabilizing influences of family and peer groups influence children’s television viewing and the way they process media messages. If an individual’s family or social life plays a major part in her life, the social messages that she receives from these groups may compete with the messages she receives from television.

Key Takeaways

• The now largely discredited direct effects model of media studies assumes that media audiences passively accept media messages and exhibit predictable reactions in response to those messages.
• Credible media theories generally do not give as much power to the media, such as the agenda-setting theory, or give a more active role to the media consumer, such as the uses and gratifications theory.
• Other theories focus on specific aspects of media influence, such as the spiral of silence theory’s focus on the power of the majority opinion or the symbolic interactionism theory’s exploration of shared cultural symbolism.
• Media logic and cultivation analysis theories deal with how media consumers’ perceptions of reality can be influenced by media messages.

Media theories have a variety of uses and applications. Research one of the following topics and its effect on culture. Examine the topic using at least two of the approaches discussed in this section. Then, write a one-page essay about the topic you’ve selected.

• Internet habits
• Television’s effect on attention span
• Advertising and self-image
• Racial stereotyping in film
• Many of the theories discussed in this section were developed decades ago. Identify how each of these theories can be used today? Do you think these theories are still relevant for modern mass media? Why?

David Altheide and Robert Snow, Media Worlds in the Postjournalism Era (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1991), 9–11.

Dearing, James and Everett Rogers, Agenda-Setting (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 4.

Hanson, Ralph. Mass Communication: Living in a Media World (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2009), 80–81.

Hanson, Ralph. Mass Communication , 92.

Jansson-Boyd, Catherine. Consumer Psychology (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 59–62.

Papacharissi, Zizi. “Uses and Gratifications,” 153–154.

Papacharissi, Zizi. “Uses and Gratifications,” in An Integrated Approach to Communication Theory and Research , ed. Don Stacks and Michael Salwen (New York: Routledge, 2009), 137.

Stille, Alexander. “Marshall McLuhan Is Back From the Dustbin of History; With the Internet, His Ideas Again Seem Ahead of Their Time,” New York Times , October 14, 2000, http://www.nytimes.com/2000/10/14/arts/marshall-mcluhan-back-dustbin-history-with-internet-his-ideas-again-seem-ahead.html .

Understanding Media and Culture Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Developing Support Materials For Mass Media Course In Elt

The research outlined in this paper explores the potential of the ELT classroom as a venue for developing students’ media literacy with the help of the support materials designed within the project of Dostoevsky Omsk State University. It is a part of a larger body research that investigates the idea of mass media studies incorporated into the regular ELT course of this University. The perspective is based on the idea of including media literacy development into the program. The modular structure of the course book designed within the project provides a model for creating support materials on the basis of authentic British and American mass media multi-media sources. Classroom observations and interviews conducted with instructors and students examine perceived pros and cons of the studying/teaching with the help of these support materials identify undisputed, sincere interest, delight, and acceptance. This provides evidence that multi-media used to constitute the core of the support materials designed as a course book, might provide invaluable help for teachers in the media-oriented classroom. What is more, most course instructors participating in the project valued the efficiency of the support materials not only in terms of media literacy, considering them to be a noteworthy factor in enhancing students’ language performance. Analysis and interpretation of multimedia texts via tasks from the course book allow students to update their mass media awareness and to access, analyse various kinds of mass media. The paper is accompanied by numerous tasks from the mass media included in the suggested book. Keywords: Authentic multi-media media-oriented classroom

Introduction

1.1. The field of English language teaching has noticeably changed over the last decade as language teaching has undergone various changes. The challenge English teachers currently face is unprecedented: they are supposed to reduce the difference between long-established teaching, designed for promoting four students’ basic language skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing), and communicative teaching.

1.2. A growing emphasis on the shift from developing linguistic competence to communicative teaching and modern trends in teaching English focused on contextualizing the language, made it absolutely inevitable for the teachers to have a quality and concept curriculum that encourages students with relevant and applicable tasks. The present paper highlights the issue and specifies the problem. It is centered around the idea of including British as well as American mass media into the ELT classroom, developing students’ critical thinking as well as their media literacy. Both Russian and foreign scholars have made efforts to encourage ELT trainers to modernize their classroom arrangements and management in the field of media literacy. Among them we would like to mention Fedorov ( 2015 ), Kamerer ( 2013 ), Lagarde and Hudgings ( 2018 ), Lidawan and Gabayno (2018), Lidawan ( 2019 ), Mahesh and Khatik ( 2016 ), Lee and Drajati ( 2019 ), Owen ( 2016 ), Shameem ( 2017 ), Yazdanpanah ( 2019 ), and others.

Problem Statement

2.1. The work with mass media in the ELT classroom can hardly be considered an innovative technique. Nevertheless, it is worth pointing out that the idea of providing mass media courses with proper support materials is still something of a novelty and presents an urgent problem recognized by anyone who dares to design them properly and on the regular basis. Is there a model for developing a course book based on analysing and interpreting authentic mass media in the ELT classroom?

2.2. Does the course book stand in the way of the syllabus? Are the materials compatible with it? Which language skills do the materials cover? The authors of the article share their experience from developing learner-centred, task-based, and problem-oriented support materials at Dostoevsky Omsk State University.

Research Questions

3.1. The research supports the Core Principles for Media Literacy Education in the United States of America, suggested by the National Association for Media Literacy Education. In accordance with this document, media literacy education presupposes active study and critical approach to the media messages we get and produce. It broadens the notions of literacy (i.e., writing, speaking, listening, reading) to add numerous types of media; forms and improves skills for the majority of students. It also states that, like conventional education, mastering these skills: require unified, interconnected practice, develop knowledgeable members essential for a democratic society and state that people use their beliefs and experiences to create their own meanings from media messages.

3.2. Mass media is “the knowledge, skills, and competencies required in order to use and interpret media” ( Buckingham, 2003, p. 36 ). Hobbs states that “most conceptualizations of media literacy now involve a type of ‘critical’ literacy based on reflection, analysis, and evaluation, not only of the content and structural elements of specific media texts but of the social, economic, political, and historical contexts in which messages are created, disseminated, and used by audiences” ( Hobbs, 2005, p. 866 ). There is no standard for how large the audience needs to be before communication becomes ‘mass’ communication. ELT defines media broadly, including books, newspapers, magazines, videos, movies, recorded music, and other resources available via Internet. Special emphasis, though, within the present project is to be put on multimedia.

3.3. It should be noted that teaching media literacy is especially important in university classrooms because students, as media consumers, tend to be more influenced in subtle but far-reaching ways by the media they encounter than adults. Media literate students are supposed to have a better understanding of the information that they receive and are more likely to consider its quality and assumptions. This occurs partly because media consumers, who have limited time and attention, automatically process the bulk of the messages that they encounter rather than expanding the effort that would be required to evaluate them.

Purpose of the Study

The research is aimed at:.

designing a model for creating support materials and course books for quality English curriculum in order to include media education into the basic ELT content;

assessing the effectiveness of the suggested model of course book for teaching media literacy, as used in both conventional classrooms and for students’ self-instruction (or a mixture of these two delivery models), empowering teachers with substantial help, giving them confidence to take up challenges of selecting media sources as well as designing tasks for the media literacy classroom.

In more detail, our research dealt with a number of questions:

Do teachers consider the suggested approach provides invaluable help in designing media-oriented ELT courses that provide them with required activities?

After completing a mass media course with the support materials designed within the project, do students display enhanced media literacy, developed analytical mind, awareness of how mass media form culture and nation and awareness of the practical bias, spin and misinformation in the media?

Do the support materials in any way affect the students’ language performance?

Research Methods

5.1. Research methods and approaches described in the paper presuppose the idea of the content-based approach. We aimed at designing a learner-centred, task-based, and problem-oriented model for creating support materials course books for practical English curriculum, with the aim of introducing media literacy into core ELT content ( Zuniga, 2016 ). In accordance with this approach, language is seen as a means of achieving something else and not as an end in itself. In our case, the model turns out to be quite sensible because students attending the content course acquired sufficient English.

To be more specific, we devised a course book Mass Media for Students of English on the base of the model developed within the research ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017 ). The course book is intended for language students as well as for non-language students with upper-intermediate – advanced level of English ( Dvorghets & Shaturnaya, 2015 ).

5.2. While developing materials, one has to go through several steps like: selecting, grading, sequencing, implementing, and evaluating them ( Shameem, 2017, p.195 ). The following principles were involved in development of the course –book:

materials should be connected with culture, values, issues and cases mostly with powerful visual support;

they should contain controversial, various topics and problems that reflect modern state of events in society as well as students’concerns and passions;

they should address language as well as media literacy areas and skills development;

the linguistic items of the study materials (certain grammar structures, language functions, and conversational forms) introduced in the classroom as well as their speech delivery (speech rate, clarity of speech, and accent) and density of language should be an important factor taken into account when choosing mass media for classroom discussion/analysis/interpretation;

they should be versatile, thought-provoking, and inspiring to students in order to provide students’ interest.

Before going further into the subject, we would like to illustrate the aforementioned approach with some examples of materials chosen for the course book ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017, p. 9, 29 ; 32, 56):

Mass Media . URL: http://study. com/academy/lesson/what-is-mass-media-definition-types-influence- examples.html.

Dangers of Tolerance. URL: https://youtu.be/_0SFZqoT9Os.

The Truth about Immigration. URL: What They Won’t Tell You! URL: https://youtu.be/QV7JILRugOg.

What is the Future of Language? URL: https://youtu. be/rUU8pLEk6nk.

Will English Always Be the Global Language? URL: https://youtu.be/5Kvs8SxN8mc.

Who’s fighting whom in Syria? Explained in 90 seconds . URL: https://youtu.be/z_ily8CjDXc.

Who is fighting and why? URL: https:// youtu.be/NKb9GVU8bHE.

5.3. In modern times, it is universally accepted that language teacher should be flexible. From among the various definitions of this term, in the context of methods and ways used when designing the course book, we mean that one should be conscious of the necessity to take not only the material that was selected for the course, but also students’ needs and preferable ways for consideration. The reason for this is evident – students’ feelings and attitudes can stimulate or discourage learning. Hence, we attempted to create the kind of environment in which the negative effect is minimized and the positive effect might be advanced.

Whenever possible, we took into account the fact that students have different cognitive styles. The tasks in the course were designed in a way such that students might feel that learning is purposeful and that their needs are being addressed. Moreover, many kinds of various activities are used to ensure that various students’ needs might be met.

The teaching strategies suggested within the project and used for the course book follow the classical standard of activities to perform before watching, while watching and after watching some video. The examples below are borrowed from the course – book designed within the research ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017 ).

Pre-viewing discussion is designed in the format of warm-up activities or lead-ins. The pre-viewing tasks may initiate discussion, or provide students with background information concerning the topic under discussion, if applicable. The students may be asked to keep this information in mind and then revisit their initial notes after covering all the tasks to see if their views about the issue changed. The tasks are typically introduced as information gap activities/brainstorming, then followed by information from the printed text and group discussion to prepare for viewing.

These are predictably headed by “Do you know….” questions concerning the appropriate topic, completing the word webs, vocabulary consultations, etc. The discussion questions introducing the topic Global Issues , for instance, include “Do you know any top-level issues that can be treated as global ones/the difference between international affairs and global issues/which global issues seem to be the most pressing ones/any global organizations to address global issues /any global issues that shaped the world in recent years/world initiatives to cope with global challenges?”

While-viewing mode keeps students on tasks based on several authentic multi-media tests covering certain topics borrowed from American or British multi-media ranging from global issues, challenges, and large-scale changes like Brexit to relationship or language problems. Multi-media texts borrowed from various sources within this mode undoubtedly change learning beyond current practice, contextualize the language, and add an authentic flavour to the learning as well as the teaching process. Among other factors, when selecting multi-media for while-viewing activities the authors of the paper consider introducing controversy as a crucial factor, since conflicting attitudes in the media may be valuable for further discussion. Irrespective of any section of the course book, the activities inevitably aim at the gist of the multi-media texts, as well as specify their facts and details of their context. Ideally, it is already within the while-viewing mode that students may contribute to the discussion of disputable issues. Let us illustrate the point by the example below:

Task 6. Watch the video Brexit: A catastrophically stupid decision with Alistair Campbell. URL: https://youtu.be/UysJY2p0p78). An official discusses the situation in Britain after the decision to leave the EU. Compare his views with the ones expressed by the Eurosceptic Martin Durkin in the movie Brexit . Whose side of the controversy would you take? Complete the list of advantages and disadvantages for the countries to be members of the EU. Consider several issues: economic costs, trade, bureaucracy, immigration, workers’ rights ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017, p. 22 )

Effective after-viewing strategies suggest tasks designed to stimulate discussion. They should be done to help engage students in developing their language competence as well as critical thinking and media literacy. These activities help students make their own decisions and create their own points of view. Similarly, the boundless diversity of after-viewing activities requires students to consider issues concerning various contexts and sociolinguistic aspects of English that may influence its meaning.

The following is an illustration of the after-viewing activity for the topic Brexit ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017, p. 23 ):

Task 8. Role play Mini-debate: advantages and disadvantages of staying in the EU: Brexiters vs Remainers. Public opinion was divided between the two camps – those in favor of leaving ... and those who wanted to remain.

The video for help:

4 Reasons to Vote Leave &. Remain in The UR EU Referendum URL: https://youtu.be/bvnmAjev5oE.

David Cameron’s Speech on Brexit: David Cameron resigns as UK votes to leave. URL: https://youtu.be/fXNV3Ad0qQ0.

The course – book Mass Media for Students of English ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017 ) designed within the research as well as the model for creating it may be considered to be the finding of the project. Its model is based on the topic-oriented structure with a modular approach to content creation, wherein the content is structured around certain topics that can typically be mixed and revised in the linear structure of a course book. A topic is a discrete piece of content that is about a specific subject, has an identifiable purpose, and does not need to be presented in context for the end-user to make sense of the content. Language is seen as a means of achieving something else and not an end in itself. The novelty, though, differentiating it from the common approach, lies in the fact that all the material for the course is based exclusively on the authentic multi-media content of the section. Apart from focussing on improving students’ linguistic competence, with emphasis on their listening and speaking skills, the varied and flexible resources as well as the task design strategies are built around the idea of providing students with media literacy skills. Hence, all the material of the course book as well as the entire course are considered to be both media literacy/language oriented.

The course book is just one component in a set of support materials, another being a CD-ROM. It is shown that there should be a concern with copyright issued throughout the compilation of pertinent where video-recording of broadcast materials is concerned. However, the appreciation of the potential value of authentic video-recorded material is especially strong. Within the present research, we tried to overcome this problem by including links to the necessary media resources on the CD-ROM, so as to simplify the search for the resources for the students without having to type them out. The video recordings of the media resources are not included on the CD-ROM.

Among the topics covered in the course book Mass Media for Students of English there are: global issues and global changes, immigration crisis, dangers of tolerance, brain drain, relationships, language in the changing world, breaking news, etc. The mass media included in Section I titled What in the World , are varied and flexible – there are British and American TV news programs, talk shows, documentaries on various TV channels (CNN, CBS, BBC), as well as video sequences from You Tube. The tasks in Section II, titled Hard Talks deal with the well-known program Hard Talk on BBC. These are in-depth interviews with a wide range of questions on the sensitive topics, conducted with famous people as they talk about the ups and downs in their lives. Among the interviewees are Nickolas Burns, Noam Chomsky, Radek Sikorsky, Mikhail Zygar, Malcolm Turnbill, Dmitri Peskov, and others. In Section III, titled Words of Wisdom, the authors of the course book included copious, amazing quotes sourced from commencement speeches.

Let us cite an example illustrating the selection of media texts centred around the topic Global Issues ( Dvorghets & Tomkiv, 2017, p.17 ):

The United Nation – Year in Review . URL: https://youtu.be/M0_kxsCFZOQ.

Euro news No Comment TV. URL: http://eurone.ws/yDXQ7c.

8 Breakthrough Technologies That Will Change The World in 2016. URL: https://youtu.be/ vyIBxbLimlc.

Highlights of Trump – Clinton US presidential debate. URL: https://youtu.be/Qq4rlVF3Ags.

7.1. To evaluate the effectiveness of the support materials designed for the present research (see the questions in 4.2), surveys were conducted among several groups of students in mass media classes incorporated into the regular ELT course at the Foreign Languages Department and International Business Department of Dostoevsky Omsk State University. In addition, a research conference was held a month after completion of the course to review the results.

Instructors of all groups participating in the survey were given the privilege of using the support materials – the course book Mass Media for Students of English and the CD-ROM.

According to their opinion:

with carefully selected media resources from the course book, you save time not looking through authentic materials yourself; otherwise you have to review hours of media resources to find a few hours of useable material;

possessing thoroughly designed media-oriented and language-oriented activities, you are free from the obligation to develop such tasks yourself;

being in constant need of teaching with authentic resources that are supplied with pertinent tasks and provide a wide range of engaging classroom activities, you get the required teaching tool.

Hence, we got affirmative response to the first question of 4.2 of the present paper. Teachers reported that the suggested approach helped in designing media-oriented ELT course and provided them with required activities. Regarding the second question which concerns the students’ achievements in enhanced media literacy, improved language performance after completing the mass media course with the support materials designed within the research, the answer was affirmative as well.

The students were assessed as media watchers/interpreters participating in debates. In the initial and exit surveys, the main criteria used for evaluating students’ media literacy and language performance were as follows:

awareness of the media formats and types;

profound understanding of the basic issues;

identification of the problem(s);

ability to make reasonable conclusions;

enhanced English language performance;

presentation of strong problem solving skills.

7.2. The research has shown notable improvement of the students’ problem solving skills as well as their critical judgement and knowledge of media. Of the 107 students in the mass media class within the project, 102 filled in the questionnaires. On the basis of enhanced English language performance, 88 showed considerable progress in their understanding of all kinds of English–speaking environment media as well as profound understanding of the currently discussed issues and problems. As compared to the initial surveys, they showed their growing ability to make reasonable conclusions, presented stronger problem solving skills as media viewers and participants in the role plays and mini-debates. The other 14 students didn’t show similar results on the survey. In our view, to some extent it could be justified by two reasons: missing classes and/or the inability to do home tasks aimed at watching mass media outside the class. After completing the preplanned program, all the students demostrated they were by far more relaxed in their reasoning than the students who were not participants of the research. Both students and instructors appreciated the role and quality of the support material in the context of media literacy development. However, according to the students, the main drawback of the research is the home assignment policy which prescribes excessive amount of mass media viewing outside the class. Additionally, the links to mass media texts in the support materials in some cases had to be updated or were not available.

Similarly, most course instructors participating in the research confessed they would prefer preparation for the course not to be so time-consuming, considering that they had to spend long hours updating their mass media awareness.

Unmistakeably, we have the answer to the third question of our research, concerning the improvement of students’ language performance with the help of the support materials. Benefits in terms of their speaking and listening skills are obvious, though the assessment strategies used for measuring students’ performance are beyond the present research boundaries.

7.3. Developing support materials for mass(multi) media-oriented ELT classroom is a challenging, demanding task for the language teacher who must possess interdisciplinary knowledge and keep developing it alongside with the students. Among the numerous benefits afforded by possessing the right mix of media resources to enrich a mass media course are appropriateness, reliability, and motivation-enhanced viewing. The results confirm that not only the course book and CD-ROM created within the research might provide invaluable help for holding classes in the media-oriented ELT classroom, but that the approach suggested within the research might also provide ideas, and serve as a model for designing materials, and thus could be employed in practical English courses across a wide range of English levels. It should be noted that like most specialists in the field, we consider heavy dependence on a single course book to be damaging to students’ needs. Additionally, in discussing what is available to be learned in the classroom, as well as to what is taught is not always predictable. Although a course book may assist in many ways, it cannot determine the over-all content of a language program.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude for help in funding the present research within Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR), research project № – 012 – 00507.

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Sociolinguistics, linguistics, semantics, discourse analysis, translation, interpretation

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Dvorghets, O. S., & Butakova, L. O. (2020). Developing Support Materials For Mass Media Course In Elt. In N. L. Amiryanovna (Ed.), Word, Utterance, Text: Cognitive, Pragmatic and Cultural Aspects, vol 86. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 340-348). European Publisher. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2020.08.40

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Role of mass media and it’s impact on general public during coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in North India: An online assessment

1 Department of Hospital Management, University Institute of Applied Management and Sciences, Punjab University, Chandigarh, India.

Himani Garg

Anjali chauhan.

2 Department of Health and Family Welfare, National Health Mission, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Manisha Bhatia

3 Department of NCDs, MAMTA Health Institute for Mother and Child, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.

Gaurav Sethi

Gopal chauhan, objectives:.

Based on the global experience, India has the possibility to be highly affected by coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. To contain the spread of the infection, a complete lockdown was enforced from March 25 to May 31, 2020 in India. During the unlock phase from June 1, 2020, only limited mobility was allowed. At present, in the pandemic, mass media is playing a very important role in sharing information and connecting people. The objective of this study is to understand the role and impact of mass media in the general public during COVID-19 pandemic.

Material and Methods:

This study has been conducted on the above 10-year aged population by the online survey through Google spreadsheets. The semi-structured questionnaire was circulated to the known contacts in north Indian states for responses. The data collection started on June 23 and was closed on July 3, 2020.

This study shows that the use of internet/social media was the highest, followed by TV news before and during lockdown. The use of the internet and TV news increased during the lockdown and the use of newspapers, radio, and magazine declined significantly. The anxiety due to COVID-related news through mass media was reported highest (27.3 %) in the 40–49 years age group and lowest (14.49%) in the 20–29 age group. About 43.18% of people of 30–39 years of age group developed fear, and 28% of 50–59 age groups felt panic due to COVID-related news in media. It has been found that the use of social media is highest in the 20–29 age group followed by 10–19 years age group

Conclusion:

Mass media is playing a very important role in the dissemination of the COVID-related information to the general public in north India. However, the misleading or wrong information shall be checked in the large public interest.

INTRODUCTION

After the year 1918, the world is again facing the worst pandemic named coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by coronavirus. On December 31, 2019, China informed the World Health Organization about the cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan city, which subsequently spread to other countries. [ 1 ] Initially, the virus was named as a severe acute respiratory syndrome – coronavirus-2, some media reports also called it the Wuhan virus, and now, the disease is named COVID-19. [ 2 ] Due to non-availability of any vaccine and treatment for COVID, the Government of India enforced the lockdown from March 25, to May 31, 2020 to contain the spread of COVID-19. The unlock process started from June 1, 2020 onward in a phased manner. [ 3 ] During the lockdown period, the central and state governments got adequate time to strengthen the institutional capacity to handle COVID cases both in terms of infrastructure development and capacity building. Mass media played a very important role in creating awareness among the general public and in the dissemination of the Government orders/guidelines to the health workers, sanitation workers, including the police at grassroots levels. [ 4 ] Mass media includes TV news, internet/social media (Facebook, WhatsApp, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube, etc.), radio, and newspapers. Media also promoted handwashing, personal hygiene, social distancing norms, and reporting the COVID cases around the world. The purpose of this study is to understand the type of existing media, its role, and impact on the general public and to understand public perception about the trustworthiness of mass media during the COVID crisis in North India.

Mass media highlights during COVID-19

We followed the mass media trends from January to June 2020 for this study [ Figure 1 ] in a chronological order. The World Health Organization (WHO), on January 30, 2020, declared the novel coronavirus a public health emergency of international concern. [ 1 ] During the 1 st week of February, mass media focused on China’s tally and screening at airports. In India, the first COVID case was reported in Kerala on January 30, 2020. [ 5 ] Meanwhile, mass media started promoting hand hygiene and other preventive measures. The WHO declared COVID-19 a global pandemic on March 11, 2020. From this day, media started constant reporting on COVID which created anxiety among the public, leading to impulsive buying of hand sanitizers, face masks, and daily need products. Simultaneously, media started covering the shortage of personal protective equipments (PPE) for health care workers. This coverage helped in putting masks and sanitizers under the essential commodities act. [ 6 ] On March 22, #jantacurfew, India observed Janta (People) curfew the whole day and beat thali (plate) at 5’o clock in support of a call from the Prime Minister of India. [ 7 ] This was to boost the morale of many health workers, but also negative words spread that we do not need clapping but masks and PPE kits #INDIAFIGHTSCORONA. These reports helped the government in decision making for manufacturing PPE kits. On March 25, India entered into 21-day lockdown period, and most popular trend on Twitter was #coronaviruslockdown or #stayhomeindia. During the starting period, everyone was motivated to try different things at home, and even media reported about social distancing practices followed by the public; however, the motivation was down by the time as some misinformation was floated like Indians are more immune to the virus; few people were following sadhus who were promoting drinking cow urine. [ 8 ] This news was further suppressed as Indian singer Kanika Kapoor was the highlight for spreading the disease by attending a party and meeting many celebrities at luck now on March 15. On April 5, media became a part of the festivity by switching off residential lights for 9 min and light a candle or Diya on their balconies. #9baje9min. Along with all these, some media platforms showed the hotspots and the COVID condition of Italy. Footages of people falling on the streets, overburdened hospitals, and dead bodies in the churches showed that the problem may worsen in future if the adequate preventive measure is not taken. In April, a gathering in Delhi’s Nizamuddin Markaz (center) in India reported a number of its members to test positive for COVID. [ 9 ] At the end of the first lockdown on April 14, 2020, the #lockdown two started. Social media was flooded with trolls about the new task. Soon, it shifted to migrant workers traveling hundreds of miles to reach their homes amid lockdown. The media coverage helped the laborers for starting special trains called “Shramik express.” After being in lockdown for over a month, media showed photos and footages of a clean environment and clean air. The low movement of automobiles and closed factories improved the environment by 60–65%. [ 10 ] In May, America became the new hotspot of the virus after Italy. Media showed the protests of Americans against the extended lockdown. Along with this, all internet platforms start showing India’s status of coronavirus in the small box on almost every website. There were miscommunication and misunderstanding about the guidelines and relaxations during different phases of lockdown like night curfew timings and which institution/industry will remain open during the lockdown. Here, media played an important role in asking questions to the public officials for more clarity on various platforms. Over time, corona took a side seat on media, and the lead was taken by the India China border conflict at Galwan valley, showing satellite images of the army position over there. #GALWAN. [ 11 ]

Mass media highlights during covid19 from January to June 2020, in India.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To assess the role and impact of mass media on the general public, a semi-structured questionnaire having 18 questions was developed for the online survey with the help of public health experts titled “COVID19 and impact of mass media.” The questionnaire was circulated through Google spreadsheets to the known contacts for response and further dissemination, especially in the state of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Union Territory Chandigarh in North India. The questionnaire was divided into six sections: Preference of platform of mass media before and during lockdown, impact of mass media, and dissemination of information, time spending on mass media before and during lockdown, and preference of platform on social media. We used the self-selection survey method of non-probability to recruit participants through WhatsApp and Instagram. The population above 10 years of age has been involved in the survey. The sample population data includes sociodemographic details, including area, age, gender, and educational background. The data collection was stopped after getting the desired number of 384 responses, out of which 65% was urban, and 35% was rural population. The analysis of the data has been done by multiple responses cross tabulation method.

On analysis of the data, it has been found that the use of internet/social media was highest during and before lockdown, followed by TV news. The use of TV and internet/ social media increased during the lockdown while the use of newspapers, radio, and magazines declined significantly [ Figure 2 ]. To see the impact of media on the general public, the options, including fear, panic, stress, anxiety, and none, were included in the questionnaire. The data show that most of the population felt stress after hearing about COVID-19 [ Table 1 ] through mass media. The anxiety was felt highest (27.3%) in 40–49 age group and lowest (14.19%) in 20–29 age group. The stress was highest (27.3%) in the 40–49 age group and lowest (15.9%) in 30–39 age groups. The fear was highest (43.18%) in 30–39 age group and lowest (7.69%) in the +60 age group. The panic was highest (30.76%) in +60 age group and no stress was reported in 40–49 age group.

The preference of the use of mass media by the public before and during lockdown (imposed to contain coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic) in North India.

The impact of mass media on the public during lockdown imposed to contain the spread of COVID-19 on various age groups in North India.

It has also been found that 20–29 age group is the biggest user of social media followed by 10–19 year age group and +60 age group is the lowest user of social media. The data shows that people of 10–19 and 20–29 age groups mostly use YouTube, WhatsApp, and Instagram. The people above the age of 30 mostly prefer Facebook and WhatsApp [ Table 2 ].

The preference of platform of social media used by different age groups during COVID-19 pandemic in North India.

Mass media has played a very important role in the dissemination of the COVID-related information to the general public and to follow safe practices. [ 4 ] Individuals who rarely read, watch, or listen to the news regularly before COVID-19 are now using it in routine. The frontline workers are working diligently, as well as the government agencies are more active due to the information and directions being circulated through mass media. Without prevailing mass media, people have limited access to objective sources of information. During the earlier H1N1 influenza pandemic, it has been seen that more news reports resulted in fewer hospital visits and vice versa. The mass media is a powerful tool to halt the spread of disease during pandemic, and it has a great impact on people’s behavior. [ 12 ]

During COVID-19 pandemic, newspaper supply has declined due to the doubts about COVID that it can be transmitted through the newspaper also. A survey conducted through telephonic interview determined the lockdown impact on newspaper reading pattern and time spent by the public. It found that readers who spent over an hour reading before lockdown declined by 22 % after lockdown due to the doubt of the spread of infection through newspapers, and many people shifted from print media to digital media. [ 13 ]

Misinformation and fear have been widely associated with mass media during the COVID-19 pandemic. The relation between various sources of media and impact on public has been evaluated in a study published in the Electronic Journal of General Medicine. The researchers used a scale to measure the impact of media which concludes that mainly three factors (exaggeration of the media, generated fear, and information received from health personnel, family, and friends) has influence on people. [ 14 ]

Social media has a great impact on human behavior, and it has transformed the way of communication in modern days. The outburst of COVID-19 has also been outpaced by the misinformation related to the pandemic spread among millions of people. It has been seen that false information can result in adverse impact through social media platforms because it can spread fast and easily. [ 15 ]

A study conducted in Iraq on the potential impact of social media on human behavior shows that social media has a significantly negative effect on mental health and psychological well-being. During the lockdown, people are using social media platforms to gain information about COVID-19. However, the impact of social media on human behavior depends on individual’s gender, age, and education. [ 16 ]

Misinformation may continue to influence beliefs and attitudes even after being debunked if it is not replaced by an alternate causal explanation. [ 17 ] Although some content could be actual and useful, they may be overpowered by false information. Exaggeration of news related to COVID was done by TV news or social media which created a sense of panic among the public at large. The WHO director also suggested not to watch or read COVID news for more than half an hour a day instead indulge in some physical activity or any hobby. [ 18 ]

Despite this, the time spending on mass media increased during lockdown significantly. Social media and phonic conversation became the main source of communication during the lockdown. However, after the unlock media also deviated from the corona story to other incidents, including geopolitical conflicts between India and China. This study highlights the need for persistent reporting about COVID-19 to create a sense of understanding of what could happen if we do not follow the universal precautions. However, this study provides an in-depth view of the uses of media and its impact on the general public, but due to the small sample size, the cause and effect relationship cannot be established.

Media is a powerful tool to provide information to the general public and to promote positive environment during COVID pandemic, but it may also spread misleading information. Media of New Zealand did great work by helping government to combat the spread of COVID by highlighting every aspect to encourage public participation. India, with a huge population of about 1.3 billion, is having a high use of social media platforms. At present, it is the most powerful media in India. Taking it as an advantage public can be motivated through social media to follow safe practices to contain the spread. It becomes the joint responsibility of the media and the individuals not to forward any misleading information without verifying the facts and the source of information. There is an urgent need to develop the means of verification of any COVID-related information to avoid confusions. Although it is difficult to show COVID-related reports on 24 × 7 h basis by any media, analysis of the COVID-related key information shall be done at least once a day on preferred media channels. The mass media shall be promoted, but the misleading and wrong information shall be verified/checked before dissemination in the large public interest.

How to cite this article: Dhanashree, Garg H, Chauhan A, Bhatia M, Sethi G, Chauhan G. Role of mass media and it’s impact on general public during coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic in North India: An online assessment. Indian J Med Sci 2021;73(1):21-5.

Declaration of patient consent

Patient’s consent not required as there are no patients in this study.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

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New Media and culture: Case study

• Conference: 4th World Conference on Media and Mass Communication – MEDCOM 2018
• At: Bangkok, Thailand

• University of Sharjah

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Mass Media is a startup, extremely innovating on Martech, therefore the challenge is to get the message across to the users, the value proposition is an extremely complex ecosystem. The challenge is letting prospects know the benefits they can get out of the software and leading them to the top of the funnel.

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Currently working on content and communications development

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Chaos and Confusion: Tech Outage Causes Disruptions Worldwide

Airlines, hospitals and people’s computers were affected after CrowdStrike, a cybersecurity company, sent out a flawed software update.

• Share full article

By Adam Satariano ,  Paul Mozur ,  Kate Conger and Sheera Frenkel

• July 19, 2024

Airlines grounded flights. Operators of 911 lines could not respond to emergencies. Hospitals canceled surgeries. Retailers closed for the day. And the actions all traced back to a batch of bad computer code.

A flawed software update sent out by a little-known cybersecurity company caused chaos and disruption around the world on Friday. The company, CrowdStrike , based in Austin, Texas, makes software used by multinational corporations, government agencies and scores of other organizations to protect against hackers and online intruders.

But when CrowdStrike sent its update on Thursday to its customers that run Microsoft Windows software, computers began to crash.

The fallout, which was immediate and inescapable, highlighted the brittleness of global technology infrastructure. The world has become reliant on Microsoft and a handful of cybersecurity firms like CrowdStrike. So when a single flawed piece of software is released over the internet, it can almost instantly damage countless companies and organizations that depend on the technology as part of everyday business.

“This is a very, very uncomfortable illustration of the fragility of the world’s core internet infrastructure,” said Ciaran Martin, the former chief executive of Britain’s National Cyber Security Center and a professor at the Blavatnik School of Government at Oxford University.

A cyberattack did not cause the widespread outage, but the effects on Friday showed how devastating the damage can be when a main artery of the global technology system is disrupted. It raised broader questions about CrowdStrike’s testing processes and what repercussions such software firms should face when flaws in their code cause major disruptions.

How a Software Update Crashed Computers Around the World

Here’s a visual explanation for how a faulty software update crippled machines.

How the airline cancellations rippled around the world (and across time zones)

Share of canceled flights at 25 airports on Friday

50% of flights

Ai r po r t

Bengalu r u K empeg o wda

Dhaka Shahjalal

Minneapolis-Saint P aul

Stuttga r t

Melbou r ne

Be r lin B r anden b urg

London City

Amsterdam Schiphol

Chicago O'Hare

Raleigh−Durham

B r adl e y

Cha r lotte

Reagan National

Philadelphia

1:20 a.m. ET

CrowdStrike’s stock price so far this year

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